Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-12T19:54:47.470Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Stress sensitization to depression following childhood adversity: Moderation by HPA axis and serotonergic multilocus profile scores

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2020

Lisa R. Starr Open the ORCID record for Lisa R. Starr [Opens in a new window] ,
Catherine B. Stroud ,
Zoey A. Shaw  and
Suzanne Vrshek-Schallhorn
Lisa R. Starr*
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
Catherine B. Stroud
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Williams College, Williamstown, MA, USA
Zoey A. Shaw
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
Suzanne Vrshek-Schallhorn
Affiliation:
Psychology, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Lisa R. Starr, 491 Meliora Hall, Box 270266, Rochester, NY14627, USA. Email: lisa.starr@rochester.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood adversity appears to sensitize youth to stress, increasing depression risk following stressful life events occurring throughout the lifespan. Some evidence suggests hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis-related and serotonergic genetic variation moderates this effect, in a “gene-by-environment-by-environment” interaction (G × E × E). However, prior research has tested single genetic variants, limiting power. The current study uses a multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) approach to capture polygenic risk relevant to HPA axis and serotonergic functioning. Adolescents (N = 241, Mage = 15.90) completed contextual-threat-based interviews assessing childhood adversity and acute life events, and diagnostic interviews assessing depression. Established MGPSs indexed genetic variation linked to HPA axis (10 single nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs]) and serotonergic (five SNPs) functioning. Results showed significant MGPS × Childhood Adversity × Recent Life Stress interactions predicting depression for both HPA axis and serotonergic MGPSs, with both risk scores predicting stronger Childhood Adversity × Recent Stress interactions. Serotonergic genetic risk specifically predicted sensitization to major interpersonal stressors. The serotonergic MGPS G × E × E was re-tested in an independent replication sample of early adolescent girls, with comparable results. Findings support the notion that genetic variation linked to these two neurobiological symptoms alters stress sensitization, and that gene-by-environment (G × E) interactions may be qualified by environmental exposures occurring at different points in development.

Keywords

childhood adversitydepressiongene-by-environment interactiongeneticstress sensitizationstressful life events
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 4 , October 2021 , pp. 1264 - 1278
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aliev, F., Latendresse, S. J., Bacanu, S.-A., Neale, M. C., & Dick, D. M. (2014). Testing for measured gene-environment interaction: Problems with the use of cross-product terms and a regression model reparameterization solution. Behavior Genetics, 44, 165–181. doi:10.1007/s10519-014-9642-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Assary, E., Vincent, J. P., Keers, R., & Pluess, M. (2018). Gene-environment interaction and psychiatric disorders: Review and future directions. Paper presented at the Seminars in cell & developmental biology.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avenevoli, S., Swendsen, J., He, J. P., Burstein, M., & Merikangas, K. R. (2015). Major depression in the national comorbidity survey-adolescent supplement: Prevalence, correlates, and treatment. Journal American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baer, J. C., & Martinez, C. D. (2006). Child maltreatment and insecure attachment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 24, 187–197. doi:10.1080/02646830600821231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00525.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bleys, D., Luyten, P., Soenens, B., & Claes, S. (2018). Gene-environment interactions between stress and 5-HTTLPR in depression: A meta-analytic update. Journal of Affective Disorders, 226, 339–345. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogdan, R., Hyde, L. W., & Hariri, A. R. (2013). A neurogenetics approach to understanding individual differences in brain, behavior, and risk for psychopathology. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 288–299. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosch, N. M., Riese, H., Reijneveld, S. A., Bakker, M. P., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012). Timing matters: Long term effects of adversities from prenatal period up to adolescence on adolescents’ cortisol stress response. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 1439–1447. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.01.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. G., Binder, E. B., Epstein, M. P., Tang, Y., Nair, H. P., Liu, W., … Newport, D. J. (2008). Influence of child abuse on adult depression: Moderation by the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 190. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.26CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, G., Bifulco, A., & Harris, T. O. (1987). Life events, vulnerability and onset of depression: Some refinements. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 30–42. doi:10.1192/bjp.150.1.30CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and Its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 509–527. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101452CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., … Poulton, R. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389. doi:10.1126/science.1083968CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, F. R., Stroud, C. B., Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Doane, L. D., & Granger, D. A. (2017). Individual differences in early adolescents’ latent trait cortisol: Interaction of early adversity and 5-HTTLPR. Biological Psychology. Advance online publication.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chida, Y., & Steptoe, A. (2009). Cortisol awakening response and psychosocial factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 80, 265–278. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.10.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Physiological measures of emotion from a developmental perspective: State of the science: Neuroendocrine regulation and emotional adaptation in the context of child maltreatment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 87–95. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00666.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culverhouse, R. C., Saccone, N. L., Horton, A. C., Ma, Y., Anstey, K. J., Banaschewski, T., … Bierut, L. J. (2017). Collaborative meta-analysis finds no evidence of a strong interaction between stress and 5-HTTLPR genotype contributing to the development of depression. Molecular Psychiatry, 23, 133–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daskalakis, N. P., Bagot, R. C., Parker, K. J., Vinkers, C. H., & de Kloet, E. R. (2013). The three-hit concept of vulnerability and resilience: Toward understanding adaptation to early-life adversity outcome. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 1858–1873. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.06.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davila, J., Stroud, C. B., Starr, L. R., Miller, M. R., Yoneda, A., & Hershenberg, R. (2009). Romantic and sexual activities, parent-adolescent stress, and depressive symptoms among early adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 909–924. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.10.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Vries, Y., Roest, A., Franzen, M., Munafò, M., & Bastiaansen, J. (2016). Citation bias and selective focus on positive findings in the literature on the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), life stress and depression. Psychological Medicine, 46, 2971–2979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dick, D. M., Agrawal, A., Keller, M. C., Adkins, A., Aliev, F., Monroe, S., … Sher, K. J. (2015). Candidate gene–environment interaction research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 37–59. doi:10.1177/1745691614556682CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di Iorio, C. R., Carey, C. E., Michalski, L. J., Corral-Frias, N. S., Conley, E. D., Hariri, A. R., & Bogdan, R. (2017). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis genetic variation and early stress moderates amygdala function. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 80, 170–178. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.03.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1041–1049. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020191CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espejo, E. P., Hammen, C., Connolly, N. P., Brennan, P. A., Najman, J. M., & Bor, W. (2007). Stress sensitization and adolescent depressive severity as a function of childhood adversity: A link to anxiety disorders. Journal Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 287–299. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9090-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W. (2003). A multimethodological analysis of cumulative risk and allostatic load among rural children. Developmental Psychology, 39, 924–933. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.924CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., Kim, P., Ting, A. H., Tesher, H. B., & Shannis, D. (2007). Cumulative risk, maternal responsiveness, and allostatic load among young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 341–351. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.341CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2009). G*Power, Version 3.1.9.2 (Version 3.1.9.2). Kiel, Germany: Kiel University.Google Scholar
Feurer, C., McGeary, J. E., Knopik, V. S., Brick, L. A., Palmer, R. H., & Gibb, B. E. (2017). HPA axis multilocus genetic profile score moderates the impact of interpersonal stress on prospective increases in depressive symptoms for offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 1017–1028. doi:10.1037/abn0000316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fries, A. B. W., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2008). Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children. Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 588–599. doi:10.1002/dev.20319CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gabrielli, J., Jackson, Y., Tunno, A. M., & Hambrick, E. P. (2017). The blind men and the elephant: Identification of a latent maltreatment construct for youth in foster care. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 98–108. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, C. F., Phifer, J., Bradley, B., & Ressler, K. J. (2009). Risk and resilience: Genetic and environmental influences on development of the stress response. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 984–992. doi:10.1002/da.20605CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, A., Jenkins, J. M., Steiner, M., & Fleming, A. S. (2009). The relation between early life adversity, cortisol awakening response and diurnal salivary cortisol levels in postpartum women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 76–86. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grabe, H. J., Schwahn, C., Mahler, J., Schulz, A., Spitzer, C., Fenske, K., … Freyberger, H. J. (2012). Moderation of adult depression by the serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), childhood abuse and adult traumatic events in a general population sample. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 159B, 298–309. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32027CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Fisher, P. A. (2006). Bringing basic research on early experience and stress neurobiology to bear on preventive interventions for neglected and maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 651–677. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060330CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C, & Brennan, PA. (2001). Depressed adolescents of depressed and nondepressed mothers: Tests of an interpersonal impairment hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 284–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., Kassel, J. D., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Adult attachment dimensions and specificity of emotional distress symptoms: Prospective investigations of cognitive risk and interpersonal stress generation as mediating mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 136–151. doi:10.1177/0146167204271324CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harkness, K. L., Bagby, R. M., Stewart, J. G., Larocque, C. L., Mazurka, R., Strauss, J. S., … Kennedy, J. L. (2015). Childhood emotional and sexual maltreatment moderate the relation of the serotonin transporter gene to stress generation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 275. doi:10.1037/abn0000034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harkness, K. L., Bruce, A. E., & Lumley, M. N. (2006). The role of childhood abuse and neglect in the sensitization to stressful life events in adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 730–741. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.730CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Heim, C., & Binder, E. B. (2012). Current research trends in early life stress and depression: Review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene–environment interactions, and epigenetics. Experimental Neurology, 233, 102–111. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.10.032CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Mletzko, T., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2008). The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33, 693–710. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heo, M., & Leon, A. C. (2010). Sample sizes required to detect two-way and three-way interactions involving slope differences in mixed-effects linear models. Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics, 20, 787–802. doi:10.1080/10543401003618819CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Homberg, J. R., & van den Hove, D. L. A. (2012). The serotonin transporter gene and functional and pathological adaptation to environmental variation across the life span. Progress in Neurobiology, 99, 117–127. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.08.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, M., & Starr, L. R. (2019). Interpersonal childhood adversity and stress generation in adolescence: Moderation by HPA axis multilocus genetic variation. Development and Psychopathology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1017/S0954579419001123Google Scholar
Huh, H. J., Kim, S. Y., Yu, J. J., & Chae, J. H. (2014). Childhood trauma and adult interpersonal relationship problems in patients with depression and anxiety disorders. Annals of General Psychiatry, 13, 26. doi:10.1186/s12991-014-0026-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, Y., Gabrielli, J., Fleming, K., Tunno, A. M., & Makanui, P. K. (2014). Untangling the relative contribution of maltreatment severity and frequency to type of behavioral outcome in foster youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 1147–1159. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Gould, M. S., Kasen, S., Brown, J., & Brook, J. S. (2002). Childhood adversities, interpersonal difficulties, and risk for suicide attempts during late adolescence and early adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 741–749. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.8.741CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, L. L., Akiskal, H. S., Maser, J. D., Zeller, P. J., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., … Keller, M. B. (1998). A prospective 12-year study of subsyndromal and syndromal depressive symptoms in unipolar major depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 694–700. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.8.694CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karg, K., Burmeister, M., Shedden, K., & Sen, S. (2011). The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited: Evidence of genetic moderation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 444–454. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.189CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rau, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., … Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children- present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–987. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Yang, B.-Z., Douglas-Palumberi, H., Houshyar, S., Lipschitz, D., Krystal, J. H., & Gelernter, J. (2004). Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 17316–17321. doi:10.1073/pnas.0404376101CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keers, R., & Pluess, M. (2017). Childhood quality influences genetic sensitivity to environmental influences across adulthood: A life-course gene × environment interaction study. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1921–1933. doi:10.1017/S0954579417001493CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilpatrick, D. G., Koenen, K. C., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Galea, S., Resnick, H. S., … Gelernter, J. (2007). The serotonin transporter genotype and social support and moderation of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in hurricane-exposed adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1693–1699. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06122007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumsta, R., Stevens, S., Brookes, K., Schlotz, W., Castle, J., Beckett, C., … Sonuga-Barke, E. (2010). 5HTT genotype moderates the influence of early institutional deprivation on emotional problems in adolescence: Evidence from the English and Romanian Adoptee (ERA) study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 755–762. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02249.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
La Rocque, C. L., Harkness, K. L., & Bagby, R. M. (2014). The differential relation of childhood maltreatment to stress sensitization in adolescent and young adult depression. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 871–882. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.05.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., & Seeley, J. R. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III--R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.133CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., Ouellet-Morin, I., Hupbach, A., Tu, M. T., Buss, C., Walker, D., … McEwen, B. S. (2006). Beyond the stress concept: Allostatic load--a developmental biological and cognitive perspective. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Developmental neuroscience (Vol. 2). Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., Koenen, K. C., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1647–1658. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, R., Wankerl, M., Stalder, T., Kirschbaum, C., & Alexander, N. (2013). The serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and cortisol stress reactivity: A meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 1018–1024. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2014). Bias in a protocol for a meta-analysis of 5-HTTLPR, stress, and depression. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 179. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-14-179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafò, M. R., Durrant, C., Lewis, G., & Flint, J. (2009a). Gene × environment interactions at the serotonin transporter locus. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 211–219. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.06.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munafò, M. R., Freimer, N. B., Ng, W., Ophoff, R., Veijola, J., Miettunen, J., … Flint, J. (2009b). 5-HTTLPR genotype and anxiety-related personality traits: A meta-analysis and new data. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 150B, 271–281. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30808CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (1998-2018). Mplus User's Guide. Eighth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen.Google Scholar
Nikolova, Y. S., Ferrell, R. E., Manuck, S. B., & Hariri, A. R. (2011). Multilocus genetic profile for dopamine signaling predicts ventral striatum reactivity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 1940–1947. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.82CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pagliaccio, D., Luby, J. L., Bogdan, R., Agrawal, A., Gaffrey, M. S., Belden, A. C., … Barch, D. M. (2014). Stress-system genes and life stress predict cortisol levels and amygdala and hippocampal volumes in children. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 1245–1253. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.327CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pagliaccio, D., Luby, J. L., Bogdan, R., Agrawal, A., Gaffrey, M. S., Belden, A. C., … Barch, D. M. (2015). Amygdala functional connectivity, HPA axis genetic variation, and life stress in children and relations to anxiety and emotion regulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 817–833. doi:10.1037/abn0000094CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 117–133. doi:10.1007/BF01537962CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pluess, M. (2017). Vantage sensitivity: Environmental sensitivity to positive experiences as a function of genetic differences. Journal of Personality, 85, 38–50. doi:10.1111/jopy.12218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Post, R. M. (2016). Epigenetic basis of sensitization to stress, affective episodes, and stimulants: Implications for illness progression and prevention. Bipolar Disorders, 18, 315–324. doi:10.1111/bdi.12401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Power, R. A., Lecky-Thompson, L., Fisher, H. L., Cohen-Woods, S., Hosang, G. M., Uher, R., … McGuffin, P. (2013). The interaction between child maltreatment, adult stressful life events and the 5-HTTLPR in major depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47, 1032–1035. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.03.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rasmussen, A. R., Wohlfahrt-Veje, C., Tefre de Renzy-Martin, K., Hagen, C. P., Tinggaard, J., Mouritsen, A., … Main, K. M. (2015). Validity of self-assessment of pubertal maturation. Pediatrics, 135, 86–93. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-0793CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Risch, N., Herrell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K. Y., Eaves, L., Hoh, J., … Merikangas, K. R. (2009). Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2462–2471. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.878CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rohde, P., Beevers, C. G., Stice, E., & O'Neil, K. (2009). Major and minor depression in female adolescents: Onset, course, symptom presentation, and demographic associations. Journal Clinical Psychology, 65, 1339–1349. doi:10.1002/jclp.20629CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., & Flynn, M. (2007). Childhood adversity and youth depression: Influence of gender and pubertal status. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 497–521. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070241CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660–677. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215–234. doi:10.1017/S0954579400002066CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savalei, V., & Rhemtulla, M. (2012). On obtaining estimates of the fraction of missing information from full information maximum likelihood. Structural Equation Modeling, 19, 477–494. doi:10.1080/10705511.2012.687669CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuler, K. L., Ruggero, C. J., Goldstein, B. L., Perlman, G., Klein, D. N., & Kotov, R. (2017). Diurnal cortisol interacts with stressful events to prospectively predict depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 767–772. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.06.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shankman, S. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Klein, D. N., Small, J. W., Seeley, J. R., & Altman, S. E. (2009). Subthreshold conditions as precursors for full syndrome disorders: A 15-year longitudinal study of multiple diagnostic classes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1485–1494. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02117.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapero, B. G., Black, S. K., Liu, R. T., Klugman, J., Bender, R. E., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2014). Stressful life events and depression symptoms: The effect of childhood emotional abuse on stress reactivity. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 209–223. doi:10.1002/jclp.22011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharpley, C. F., Palanisamy, S. K., Glyde, N. S., Dillingham, P. W., & Agnew, L. L. (2014). An update on the interaction between the serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress and depression, plus an exploration of non-confirming findings. Behavioural Brain Research, 273, 89–105. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.030CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., & Vondra, J. I. (1993). Chronic family adversity and infant attachment security. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1205–1215. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01783.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheets, E. S., & Craighead, W. E. (2014). Comparing chronic interpersonal and noninterpersonal stress domains as predictors of depression recurrence in emerging adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 63, 36–42. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.09.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinha, M., Larkin, E. K., Elston, R. C., & Redline, S. (2006). Self-reported race and genetic admixture. New England Journal of Medicine, 354, 421–422. doi:10.1056/NEJMc052515CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slavich, G. M., Monroe, S. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011). Early parental loss and depression history: Associations with recent life stress in major depressive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1146–1152. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starr, L. R., Dienes, K., Li, Y. I., & Shaw, Z. A. (2019a). Chronic stress exposure, diurnal cortisol slope, and implications for mood and fatigue: Moderation by multilocus HPA axis genetic variation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 100, 156–163. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.10.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Starr, L. R., Dienes, K. A., Stroud, C. B., Shaw, Z. A., Li, Y. I., Mlawer, F., & Huang, M. (2017). Childhood adversity moderates the influence of proximal episodic stress on the cortisol awakening response and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1877–1893. doi:10.1017/S0954579417001468CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starr, L. R., Hammen, C., Conway, C. C., Raposa, E., & Brennan, P. A. (2014). Sensitizing effect of early adversity on depressive reactions to later proximal stress: Moderation by polymorphisms in serotonin transporter and corticotropin releasing hormone receptor genes in a 20-year longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1241–1254. doi:10.1017/S0954579414000996CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Starr, L. R., & Huang, M. (2019). HPA axis multilocus genetic variation moderates associations between environmental stress and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 31, 1339–1352. doi:10.1017/S0954579418000779CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starr, L. R., Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., & Stroud, C. B. (2019b). Serotonergic multilocus genetic variation moderates the association between major interpersonal stress and adolescent depression: Replication and candidate environment specification. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 117, 55–61. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.06.020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, C. B. (2019). Stress sensitization models. In Harkness, K. L. & Hayden, E. P. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of stress and mental health. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stroud, C. B., Chen, F. R., Doane, L. D., & Granger, D. A. (2016). Individual differences in early adolescents’ latent trait cortisol (LTC): Relation to early adversity. Developmental Psychobiology, 58, 700–713. doi:10.1002/dev.21410CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, C. B., Davila, J., Hammen, C., & Vrshek-Schallhorn, S. (2011). Severe and nonsevere events in first onsets versus recurrences of depression: Evidence for stress sensitization. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 142. doi:10.1037/a0021659CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, P. F., Daly, M. J., & O'Donovan, M. (2012). Genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: The emerging picture and its implications. Nature Reviews. Genetics, 13, 537–551. doi:10.1038/nrg3240CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viner, R. M., Ozer, E. M., Denny, S., Marmot, M., Resnick, M., Fatusi, A., & Currie, C. (2012). Adolescence and the social determinants of health. The Lancet, 379, 1641–1652. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60149-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vinkers, C. H., Joëls, M., Milaneschi, Y., Gerritsen, L., Kahn, R. S., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Boks, M. P. M. (2015). Mineralocorticoid receptor haplotypes sex-dependently moderate depression susceptibility following childhood maltreatment. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 54, 90–102. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Corneau, G., & Starr, L. R. (2019). Large sample sizes cannot compensate for mismeasured environments in Gene-by-Environment research. American Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 667–668. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19040374CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Doane, L. D., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., & Adam, E. K. (2013). The cortisol awakening response predicts major depression: Predictive stability over a 4-year follow-up and effect of depression history. Psychological Medicine, 43, 483–493. doi:10.1017/S0033291712001213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Griffith, J., Sutton, J., … Adam, E. K. (2014). Refining the candidate environment: Interpersonal stress, the serotonin transporter polymorphism, and gene-environment interactions in major depression. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 235–248. doi:10.1177/2167702613499329CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Sapuram, V., & Avery, B. (2017). Letter to the editor: Bias in the measurement of bias. Letter regarding ‘citation bias and selective focus on positive findings in the literature on the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), life stress and depression’. Psychological Medicine, 47, 187. doi:10.1017/S0033291716002178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Stroud, C. B., Mineka, S., Hammen, C., Zinbarg, R. E., Wolitzky-Taylor, K., & Craske, M. G. (2015a). Chronic and episodic interpersonal stress as statistically unique predictors of depression in two samples of emerging adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 918. doi:10.1037/abn0000088CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Stroud, C. B., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Adam, E. K., Redei, E. E., … Craske, M. G. (2015b). Additive genetic risk from five serotonin system polymorphisms interacts with interpersonal stress to predict depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 776. doi:10.1037/abn0000098CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warmingham, J. M., Handley, E. D., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Identifying maltreatment subgroups with patterns of maltreatment subtype and chronicity: A latent class analysis approach. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 28–39. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Way, B. M., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Social influences on health: Is serotonin a critical mediator? Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 107–112. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181ce6a7dCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmermann, P., Brückl, T., Nocon, A., Pfister, H., Binder, E. B., Uhr, M., … Ising, M. (2011). Interaction of FKBP5 gene variants and adverse life events in predicting depression onset: Results from a 10-year prospective community study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1107–1116. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Starr et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Starr et al. supplementary material(File)
File 15.2 KB