Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T01:36:53.848Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Incorporating hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis measures into preventive interventions for adolescent depression: Are we there yet?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2008

Emma K. Adam ,
Jonathan M. Sutton ,
Leah D. Doane  and
Susan Mineka
Emma K. Adam*
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
Jonathan M. Sutton
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
Leah D. Doane
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
Susan Mineka
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Emma K. Adam, Program on Human Development and Social Policy, School of Education and Social Policy and Cells to Society Center, Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, 2120 Campus Drive, Room 201, Evanston, IL 60208; E-mail: ek-adam@northwestern.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Altered functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is a robust correlate of major depression in adults, and to a lesser extent, in adolescents. Premorbid differences in HPA axis function have been found to prospectively predict the onset of adolescent depression. To what extent might our knowledge of HPA axis function in adolescents with, or at risk for, depression, help guide efforts to prevent depression in this age group? We review evidence regarding the role of the HPA axis in the development of adolescent depression, and examine whether and which HPA axis measures might be useful in guiding prevention efforts as (a) as a criterion by which to select youth at risk for depression, (b) as a predictor of which youth will be most responsive to prevention efforts, and (c) as an indicator of whether prevention/intervention efforts are working. We conclude that our current understanding of the HPA axis, and its measurement, in adolescent depression are not sufficiently precise to be of immediate practical use in improving prevention efforts. Incorporating HPA axis measures into prevention studies, however, would be immensely useful in clarifying the role of the HPA axis in adolescent depression, such that future prevention efforts might more confidently rely on HPA axis information.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , Summer 2008 , pp. 975 - 1001
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported by Grant R01 MH65652 (Richard E. Zinbarg, Susan Mineka, Michelle G. Craske, Principal Investigators) and by a William T. Grant Foundation Scholars Award (to E.K.A.). The writing of this manuscript was supported by a Scholars Award (to E.K.A.) and by an Institute for Policy Research Graduate Fellowship (to L.D.D.). We thank Jennifer Cueto for her assistance with the editing of this manuscript and the participants of the Youth Emotion Project/Sleep and Stress Study.

References

Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hankin, B. L., Haeffel, G. J., MacCoon, D. G., & Gibb, B. E. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression in self-regulatory and psychobiological context. In Gotlieb, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 268–294). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adam, E. K. (2006). Transactions among adolescent trait and state emotion and diurnal and momentary cortisol activity in naturalistic settings. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 664–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, E. K., Doane, L. D., Mendelsohn, K. A., Griffith, J. W., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R., et al. . (2007). Diurnal cortisol patterns, stressful life events, momentary negative emotion and the development of emotional disorders in late adolescents. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston.Google Scholar
Adam, E. K., Hawkley, L. C., Kudielka, B. M., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2006). Day-to-day dynamics of experience–cortisol associations in a population-based sample of older adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 17058–17063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adam, E. K., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Gunnar, M. R. (2007). Social regulation of the adrenocortical response to stress in infants, children and adolescents: Implications for psychopathology and education. In Coch, D., Dawson, G., & Fischer, K. (Eds.), Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development (pp. 264–304). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Angold, A. (2003). Adolescent depression, cortisol, and DHEA. Psychological Medicine, 33, 573–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antonijevic, I. A. (2006). Depressive disorders—Is it time to endorse different pathophysiologies? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnarson, E. Ö., & Craighead, W. E. (2006, October). Prevention of depression among Icelandic adolescents. Paper presented at the Prevention of Anxiety and Depression in Adolescents Symposium, Fourth World Conference: The Promotion of Mental Health and Prevention of Mental and Behavioural DisordersOslo.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 5–38.Google Scholar
Birmaher, B., & Heydl, P. (2001). Biological studies in depressed children and adolescents. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 4, 149–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bremner, J. D. (2000). Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 115–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bremner, J. D., & Vermetten, E. (2001). Stress and development: Behavioral and biological consequences. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 473–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broderick, J. E., Arnold, D., Kudielka, B. M., & Kirschbaum, C. (2004). Salivary cortisol sampling compliance: Comparison of patients and healthy volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 636–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, J. D., Burke, K. C., & Rae, D. S. (1994). Increased rates of substance abuse and dependence after onset of mood or anxiety disorders in adolescence. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45, 451–455.Google ScholarPubMed
Burke, K. C., Burke, J. D., Regier, D. A., & Rae, D. S. (1990). Age of onset of selected mental disorders in five community populations. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 511–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of American Medical Association, 267, 1244–1252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, G. N., Hawkins, W., Murphy, M., Sheeber, L. B., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1995). Targeted prevention of unipolar depressive disorder in an at-risk sample of high school adolescents: A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 312–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, G. N., Hornbrook, M., Lynch, F., Polen, M., Gale, J., & Beardslee, W. (2001). A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention for preventing depression in adolescent offspring of depressed parents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 1127–1134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clow, A., Thorn, L., Evans, P., & Hucklebridge, F. (2004). The awakening cortisol response: Methodological issues and significance. Stress: The International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 7, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colomina, M. T., Canals, J., Carbajo, G., & Domingo, J. L. (1997). Salivary cortisol in a young population: Relation with psychopathological disorders. Research Communications in Biological Psychology and Psychiatry, 22, 1–10.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J., & Jaser, S. (2004). Temperament, stress reactivity, and coping: Implications for depression in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33, 21–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costello, E. J., Pine, D. S., Hammen, C., March, J. S., Plotsky, P. M., Weissman, M. M., et al. (2002). Development and natural history of mood disorders. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 529–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, R. E. (2002). The regulation of sleep–arousal, affect, and attention in adolescence: Some questions and speculations. In Carskadon, M. A. (Ed.), Adolescent sleep patterns: Biological, social and psychological influences (pp. 269–284). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N., Puig-Antich, J., Nguyen, N., Al-Shabbout, M., Meyer, V., & Perel, J. (1991). 24-Hour cortisol measures in adolescents with major depression: A controlled study. Biological Psychiatry, 30, 25–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, R. E., & Ryan, N. D. (1996). The psychobiology of adolescent depression. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Adolescence: Opportunities and challenges. Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology (Vol. 7, pp. 197–232). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
de Kloet, E. R. (1991). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 12, 95–164.Google Scholar
de Kloet, E. R., & Derijk, R. (2004). Signaling pathways in brain involved in predisposition and pathogenesis of stress-related disease: Genetic and kinetic factors affecting the MR/GR balance. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 14–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Kloet, E. R., Joels, M., & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: From adaptation to disease. Nature Neuroscience Reviews, 6, 463–475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Kloet, E. R., Vreugdenhil, E., Oitzl, M., & Joels, A. (1998). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocrine Reviews, 19, 269–301.Google ScholarPubMed
Depue, R. A., & Iacono, W. G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 10, 457–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doane, L. D., Adam, E. K., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R., & Craske, M. (2008). Flattened diurnal cortisol rhythms as a scar marker of past depressive episodes in a community sample of adolescents. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lindhiem, O., Gordon, M. K., Manni, M., Sepulveda, S., et al. (2006). Developing evidence-based interventions for foster children: An example of a randomized clinical trial with infants and toddlers (Vol. 62, pp. 767–785). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Edwards, S., Evans, P., Hucklebridge, F., & Clow, A. (2001). Association between time of awakening and diurnal cortisol secretory activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26, 613–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlert, U., Gaab, J., & Heinrichs, M. (2001). Psychoneuroendocrinological contributions to the etiology of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and stress-related bodily disorders: The role of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. Biological Psychology, 57, 141–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellenbogen, M. A., Hodgins, S., Walker, C.-D., Couture, S., & Adam, S. (2006). Daytime cortisol and stress reactivity in the offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 1164–1180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. (2002). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., Gunnar, M. R., Dozier, M., Bruce, J., & Pears, K. C. (2006). Effects of therapeutic interventions for foster children on behavioral problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 215–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., Stoolmiller, M., Gunnar, M. R., & Burraston, B. O. (in press). Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology.Google Scholar
Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2005). A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 1010–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaab, J., Blattler, N., Menzi, T., Pabst, B., Stoyer, S., & Ehlert, U. (2003). Randomized controlled evaluation of the effects of cognitive–behavioral stress management on cortisol responses to acute stress in healthy subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 767–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaab, J., Sonderegger, L., Scherrer, S., & Ehlert, U. (2006). Psychoneuroendocrine effects of cognitive–behavioral stress management in a naturalistic setting—A randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 428–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garber, J., & Horowitz, J. L. (2002). Depression in children. In Gotlib, I. & Hammen, C. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 510–540). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gillham, J. E., Hamilton, J., Freres, D. R., , Patton, & Gallop, R. (2006). Prevention depression among early adolescents in the primary care setting: A randomized controlled study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 203–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gispen-de Wied, C., Jansen, L., Duyx, J., Thijessen, J., & Engeland, H. (2000). Pituitary–adrenal function in adolescent psychiatric patients: Impact of depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 59, 71–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, P. W., & Chrousos, G. P. (2002). Organization of the stress system and its dysregulation in melancholic and atypical depression: High vs low CRH/NE states. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 254–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, P. W., Licinio, J., Wong, M. L., & Chrousos, G. P. (1995). Corticotropin releasing hormone in the pathophysiology of melancholic and atypical depression and in the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 771, 716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H. (2002). Depression and early adverse experiences. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 245–267). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., & Tamplin, A. (2000). First-episode major depression in adolescents: Affective, cognitive and endocrine characteristics of risk status and predictors of onset British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 142–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., & Altham, P. M. (1998). Adrenal steroid secretion and major depression in 8- to 16-year-olds, III: Influence of cortisol/DHEA ratio at presentation on subsequent rates of disappointing life events and persistent major depression. Psychological Medicine, 28, 265–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., & Altham, P. M. E. (2000). Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 499–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, M. S., Greenberg, T., Velting, D. M., & Shaffer, D. (2003). Youth suicide risk and preventive interventions: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 386–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granger, D. A., Weisz, J. R., McCracken, J. T., Ikeda, S. C., & Douglas, P. (1996). Reciprocal influences among adrenocortical activiation, psychosocial processes, and the behavioral adjustment of clinic-referred children. Child Development, 67, 3250–3262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, P. E., Kessler, R. C., Birnbaum, H. G., Leong, S. A., Lowe, S. W., Berglund, P. A., et al. (2003). The economic burden of depression in the United States: How did it change between 1990 and 2000. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 1465–1475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of the expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I., & Murray, L. (2007). Disturbances in morning cortisol secretion in association with maternal postnatal depression predict subsequent depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 40–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I. M., & Murray, L. (2004). Exposure to postnatal depression predicts elevated cortisol in adolescent offspring. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 376–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. L. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. L. (2005). Stress and depression. In Annual review of clinical psychiatry (Vol. 1, pp. 293–319). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.Google Scholar
Hammerfald, K., Eberle, C., Grau, M., Kinsperger, A., Zimmermann, A., & Ehlert, U. (2006). Persistent effects of cognitive–behavioral stress management on cortisol responses to acute stress in healthy subjects—A randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 333–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., & McGee, R. (1998). Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1, 128–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, T. O., Borsanyi, S., Messari, S., Stanford, K., Brown, G. W., Cleary, S. E., et al. (2000). Morning cortisol as a risk factor for subsequent major depressive disorder in adult women. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 505–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1023–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Plotsky, P. M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). Importance of studying the contributions of early adverse experience to neurobiological findings in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 641–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinrichs, M., Baumgartner, T., Kirschbaum, C., & Ehlert, U. (2003). Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1389–1398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, J. P., & Cullinan, W. E. (1997). Neurocircuitry of stress: Central control of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis. Trends in Neurosciences, 20, 78–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holsboer, F. (2000). The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 23, 477–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holsboer, F. (2001). Stress, hypercortisolism and corticosteroid receptors in depression: implicatons for therapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 62, 77–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, J. L., & Garber, J. (2006). The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 401–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaycox, L. H., Reivich, K. J., Gillham, J., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1994). Prevention of depressive symptoms in school children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 801–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, E. O., Kamilaris, T. C., Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). Mechanisms of stress: A dynamic overview of hormonal and behavioral homeostatis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 16, 115–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaslow, N. J., Deering, C. G., & Racusin, G. R. (1994). Depressed children and their families. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 39–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, J., & Charney, D. (2001). Effects of early stress on brain structure and function: Implications for understanding the relationship between child maltreatment and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 451–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Martin, A., King, R. A., & Charney, D. (2001). Are child-, adolescent-, and adult-onset depression one and the same disorder? Biological Psychiatry, 49, 980–1001..CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, F. M., Gancayo, G., Heald, F. P., & Hung, W. (1966). Cortisol production rate in adolescent males at different stages of sexual maturation. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, 26, 1232–1236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, F. M., Preeasambat, C., & Migeon, C. J. (1966). Cortisol production rate: II Normal infants, children and adults. Pediatrics, 37, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiess, W., Meidert, A., Dressendorfer, R. A., Schriever, K., Kessler, U., Konig, A., et al. (1995). Salivary cortisol levels throughout childhood and adolescence: Relation with age, pubertal stage, and weight. Pediatric Research, 37, 502–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirschbaum, C., & Helhammer, D. (2000). Salivary cortisol. In Fink, G. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of stress (Vol. 3, pp. 379–383). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kirschbaum, C., Klauer, T., Filipp, S. H., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1995). Sex-specific effects of social support on cortisol and subjective responses to acute psychological stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 23–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., Shankan, S. A., & Santiago, N. J. (2002). Depression and personality. In Gotlib, E. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression and its treatment. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings, P. D., Granger, D. A., Usher, B. A., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2001). Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: Individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 695–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kudielka, B. M., Broderick, J. E., & Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Compliance with saliva sampling protocols: Electronic monitoring reveals invalid cortisol daytime profiles in noncompliant subjects. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 313–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kudielka, B. M., & Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Awakening cortisol responses are influenced by health status and awakening time but not by menstrual cycle phase. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 35–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Allen, N. B., Seeley, J. R., & Gottlib, I. H. (1999). First onset versus recurrence of depression: Differential processes of psychosocial risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 483–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., & Essau, C. A. (2002). Depression in adolescents. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 541–559). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Solomon, A., Seeley, J. R., & Zeiss, A. (2000). Clinical implications of “subthreshold” depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 345–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovallo, W., & Thomas, T. (2000). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research. In Cacioppo, J., Tassinary, L., & Bernston, G. (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed., pp. 342–367). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lupien, S. J., Gillin, C. J., & Hauger, R. L. (1999). Working memory is more sensitive than declarative memory to the acute effects of corticosteroids: A dose–response study in humans. Behavioral Neuroscience, 113, 420–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 653–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., & McEwen, B. S. (1997). The acute affects of corticosteroids on cognition: integration of animal and human model studies. Brain Research Review, 24, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBurnet, K., Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merry, S., McDowell, H., Hetrick, S., Bir, J., & Muller, N. (2004). Psychological and/or educational interventions for the prevention of depression in children and adolescents. Cochrane Library (Vol. 2). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Meyer, S., Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (2001). Major depression and the stress system: A life span perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 565–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Cohen, S., & Ritchey, A. K. (2002). Chronic psychological stress and the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: A glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychology, 21, 531–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mommersteeg, P. M., Keijsers, G. P., Heijnen, C. J., Verbraak, M. J., & van Doornen, L. J. (2006). Cortisol deviations in people with burnout before and after psychotherapy: A pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 243–248.Google ScholarPubMed
Monroe, S. M., & Hadjiyannakis, K. (2002). The social environment and depression: Focusing on severe life stress. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (p. 314–340). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Harkness, K. L. (2005). Life stress, the “kindling” hypothesis, and the recurrence of depression: Considerations from a life stress perspective. Psychological Review, 112, 417–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (Eds.). (1994). Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Mufson, L., Gallagher, T., Dorta, K. P., & Young, J. F. (2004). A group adaptation of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 58, 220–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muñoz, R. F., Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (1996). Institute of Medicine report on prevention of mental disorders. American Psychologist, 51, 1116–1122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute of Mental Health. (2002, April). Depression research at the National Institute of Mental Health: Fact sheet (Vol. 00-4501). Bethesda, MD: Author.Google Scholar
National Institute of Mental Health. (2006). Suicide in the U.S.: Statistics and prevention. Bethesda, MD: Author.Google Scholar
Pajer, K., Gardener, W., Rubin, R., Perel, J., & Neal, S. (2001). Decrease cortisol levels in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 297–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petronis, K. R., Samuels, J. F., Moscicki, E. K., & Anthony, J. C. (1990). An epidemiological investigation of the potential risk factors for suicide attempts. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25, 193–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pickles, A., Rowe, R., Simonoff, E., Foley, D., Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2001). Child psychiatric symptoms and psychosocial impairment: Relationship and prognostic significance. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 230–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, J. C., Hellhammer, D. H., & Kirschbaum, C. (1999). Burnout, perceived stress and cortisol responses to awakening. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 197–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, J. C., Wolf, O. T., Hellhammer, D. H., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., von Auer, K., Jobst, S., et al. (1997). Free cortisol levels after awakening: A reliable biological marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sciences, 61, 2539–2549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, U., Dahl, R. E., & Ryan, N. D. (1996). The relationship between longitudinal clinical course, sleep and cortisol changes in adolescent depression. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 474–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Hauf, A. M., Wasserman, M. S., & Silverman, A. B. (1999). Major depression in the transition to adulthood: Risks and impairments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 500–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, W. M., & Coats, J. I. (1986). A comparison of cognitive–behavioral therapy and relaxation training for the treatment of depression in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 653–660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, A. D. L., Wessely, S., Chalder, T., Papadopoulos, A., & Cleare, A. J. (2004). Salivary cortisol response to awakening in chronic fatigue syndrome. Britsh Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 136–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanchez, M. (2006). The impact of early adverse care of HPA axis development: Nonhuman primate models. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 623–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science, 273, 749–750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R., Krey, L., & McEwen, B. (1986). The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocrine Reviews, 7, 284–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulz, P., Kirschbaum, C., Pruessner, J., & Hellhammer, D. (1998). Increased free cortisol secretion after awakening in chronically stressed individuals because of work overload. Stress Medicine, 14, 91–97.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P., Schulman, P., DeRubeis, R. J., & Hollon, S. D. (1999). The prevention of depression and anxiety. Prevention & Treatment, 2. Retrieved June 27, 2005, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume2/pre0020008a.htmlCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P., Schulman, P., & Tryon, A. M. (2007). Group prevention of depression and anxiety symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1111–1126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seroczynski, A. D., Jacquez, F. M., & Cole, D. A. (2003). Depression and suicide during adolescence. In Adams, G. R. & Berzonsky, M. D. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Sheffield, J. K., Spence, S. H., Rapee, R. M., Kowalenko, N., Wignall, A., Davis, A., et al. (2006). Evaluation of universal, indicated, and combined cognitive–behavioral approaches to the prevention of depression among adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 66–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D., Booth, A., & Johnson, D. (2005). Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Development and Psychopathology 17, 167–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smider, N. A., Essex, M. J., Kalin, N. H., Buss, K. A., Klein, M. H., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2002). Salivary cortisol as a predictor of socioemotional adjustment during kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 73, 75–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steptoe, A., Owen, N., Kunz-Ebrecht, S. R., & Brydon, L. (2004). Loneliness and neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory stress responses in middle-aged men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 593–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stetler, C., & Miller, G. E. (2005). Blunted cortisol response to awakening in mild to moderate depression: Regulatory influences of sleep patterns and social contacts. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 697–705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stones, A., Groome, D., Perry, D., Hucklebridge, F., & Evans, P. (1999). The effect of stress on salivary cortisol in panic disorder patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 52, 197–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J. (1997). Modeling developmental complexity in adolescence: Hormones and behavior in context. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 283–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, J. M. (2007). Prevention of depression in youth: A qualitative review and future suggestions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 552–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thase, M. E., Jindal, R., & Howland, R. H. (2002). Biological aspects of depression. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 192–218). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Üstun, T. B., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., Chatterji, S., Mathers, C., & Murray, C. J. L. (2004). Global burden of depressive disorders in the year 2000. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 386–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Eck, M., Berkhof, H., Nicolson, N., & Sulon, J. (1996). The effects of perceived stress, traits, mood states, and stressful daily events on salivary cortisol. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 447–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Rossum, E. F. C., Binder, E. B., Majer, M., Koper, J. W., Ising, M., Modell, S., et al. (2006). Polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor gene and major depression. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 681–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wadhwa, P. D., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Chicz-DeMet, A., Porto, M., Sandman, C. A. (1996). Prenatal psychosocial factors and the neuroendocrine axis in human pregnancy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 432–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E. F., Walder, D. J., & Reynolds, F. (2001). Developmental changes in cortisol secretion in normal and at-risk youth. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 721–732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, J., Schneider, T., & McGuffin, P. (2002). Genetics of depression. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 169–191). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., et al. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 847–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weitzman, E. D., Fukushima, D., Nogeire, C., Roffwarg, H., Gallagher, T. F., & Hellman, L. (1971). Twenty-four hour pattern of the episodic secretion of cortisol in normal subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 33, 14–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilhelm, I., Born, J., Kudielka, B. M., Schlotz, W., & Wust, S. (2007). Is the cortisol awakening rise a response to awakening? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 358–366..CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wüst, S., Federenko, I., Hellhammer, D. H., & Kirschbaum, C. (2000). Genetic factors, perceived chronic stress, and the free cortisol response to awakening. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 707–720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R. (2003). Adult neuroendocrine aspects of PTSD. Psychiatric Annals, 33, 30–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, J. F., Mufson, L., & Davies, M. (2006). Efficacy of Interpersonal Psychotherapy-Adolescent Skills Training: An indicated preventive intervention for depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1254–1262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed