Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T13:47:17.189Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early adversity and children's emotion regulation: Differential roles of parent emotion regulation and adversity exposure

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2021

Helen M. Milojevich ,
Laura Machlin  and
Margaret A. Sheridan
Helen M. Milojevich*
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
Laura Machlin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Margaret A. Sheridan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Helen M. Milojevich, Department of Pediatrics, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 NE 13th Street, 4th Floor Nicholson Tower, Suite 4946, Oklahoma City, OK73104; E-mail: helen-milojevich@ouhsc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Exposure to early life adversity (ELA) is associated with increased rates of psychopathology and poor physical health. The present study builds on foundational work by Megan Gunnar identifying how ELA results in poor long-term outcomes through alterations in the stress response system, leading to major disruptions in emotional and behavioral regulation. Specifically, the present study tested the direct effects of ELA against the role of parent socialization to shed light on the mechanisms by which ELA leads to emotion regulation deficits. Children ages 4–7 years (N = 64) completed interviews about their experiences of deprivation and threat, a fear conditioning and extinction paradigm, and an IQ test. Parents of the children completed questionnaires regarding their own emotion regulation difficulties and psychopathology, their children's emotion regulation, and child exposure to adversity. At the bivariate level, greater exposure to threat and parental difficulties with emotion regulation were associated with poorer emotion regulation in children, assessed both via parental report and physiologically. In models where parental difficulties with emotion regulation, threat, and deprivation were introduced simultaneously, regression results indicated that parental difficulties with emotion regulation, but not deprivation or threat, continued to predict children's emotion regulation abilities. These results suggest that parental socialization of emotion is a robust predictor of emotion regulation tendencies in children exposed to early adversity.

Keywords

abuseDMAPearly adversityemotion regulationneglectsocialization
Type
Special Section 2: Early Adversity and Development: Contributions from the Field
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Special Issue 5: Early Adversity, Stress, and Neurobehavioral Development: Honoring Megan R. Gunnar's Contributions to Developmental Science , December 2020 , pp. 1788 - 1798
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

About Adverse Childhood Experiences. (2019). In Centers for Disease Control and Prevention online. Retrieved from https://www+.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/acestudy/aboutace.htmlGoogle Scholar
Adler, N., & Stewart, J. (2007). The MacArthur scale of subjective social status. MacArthur Research Network on SES & Health. Retrieved from http://Www.Macses.Ucsf.Edu/Research/Psychosocial/Subjective.PhpGoogle Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., Cicchetti, D., Kim, J., & Rogosch, F. A. (2009). Mediating and moderating processes in the relation between maltreatment and psychopathology: Mother-child relationship quality and emotion regulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 831–843. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9314-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bain, S. K., & Jaspers, K. E. (2010). Test review: Review of Kaufman brief intelligence test. Second Edition: Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition. Bloomington, MN: Pearson, Inc. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28, 167–174. doi:10.1177/0734282909348217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balge, K. A., & Milner, J. S. (2000). Emotion recognition ability in mothers at high and low risk for child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 1289–1298. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00188-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bariola, E., Gullone, E., & Hughes, E. K. (2011). Child and adolescent emotion regulation: The role of parental emotion regulation and expression. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 198–212. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0092-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bariola, E., Hughes, E. K., & Gullone, E. (2012). Relationships between parent and child emotion regulation strategy use: A brief report. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(3), 443–448. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9497-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berlin, L. J., Appleyard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention: Intergenerational continuity. Child Development, 82, 162–176. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01547.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal activity. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyes, M. E., Hasking, P. A., & Martin, G. (2016). Adverse life experience and psychological distress in adolescence: Moderating and mediating effects of emotion regulation and rumination: Life experience, emotion regulation, rumination and psychological distress. Stress and Health, 32, 402–410. doi:10.1002/smi.2635CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. H., Caldwell, B. M., & Corwyn, R. F. (2003). The Child Care HOME Inventories: Assessing the quality of family child care homes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 294–309. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(03)00041-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, J. J., Watson, D. G., Jones, R., & Rowe, M. (2013). A guide for analysing electrodermal activity (EDA) & skin conductance responses (SCRs) for psychological experiments. Psychophysiology, 49, 1017–1034.Google Scholar
Braunstein, L. M., Gross, J. J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2017). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A multi-level framework. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12, 1545–1557. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx096CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brophy-Herb, H. E., Stansbury, K., Bocknek, E., & Horodynski, M. A. (2012). Modeling maternal emotion-related socialization behaviors in a low-income sample: Relations with toddlers’ self-regulation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 352–364. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.11.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busso, D. S., McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Dimensions of adversity, physiological reactivity, and externalizing psychopathology in adolescence: Deprivation and threat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79(2), 162–171. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000369CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camras, L. A., Ribordy, S., Hill, J., Martino, S., Spaccarelli, S., & Stefani, R. (1988). Recognition and posing of emotional expressions by abused children and their mothers. Developmental Psychology, 24, 776–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598–606. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaplin, T. M., Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2005). Parental socialization of emotion expression: Gender differences and relations to child adjustment. Emotion, 5, 80–88. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.80CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Dennis, T. A., Smith-Simon, K. E., & Cohen, L. H. (2009). Preschoolers' emotion regulation strategy understanding: Relations with emotion socialization and child self-regulation. Social Development, 18, 324–352. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00503.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Criss, M. M., Morris, A. S., Ponce-Garcia, E., Cui, L., & Silk, J. S. (2016). Pathways to adaptive emotion regulation among adolescents from low-income families: Pathways to adaptive emotion regulation. Family Relations, 65, 517–529. doi:10.1111/fare.12202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Denham, S. A., Zoller, D., & Couchoud, E. A. (1994). Socialization of preschoolers’ emotion understanding. Developmental Psychology, 30, 928–936. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.30.6.928CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., & Covi, L. (1973). SCL-90: An outpatient psychiatric rating scale–preliminary report. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 9, 13–28.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunsmore, J. C., Booker, J. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013). Parental emotion coaching and child emotion regulation as protective factors for children with oppositional defiant disorder: Emotion coaching with children with ODD. Social Development, 22, 444–466. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00652.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunsmore, J. C., Her, P., Halberstadt, A. G., & Perez-Rivera, M. B. (2009). Parents’ beliefs about emotions and children's recognition of parents’ emotions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 33, 121–140. doi:10.1007/s10919-008-0066-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunsmore, J. C., & Karn, M. A. (2001). Mothers’ beliefs about feelings and children's emotional understanding. Early Education & Development, 12, 117–138. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1201_7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. H., Alisic, E., Reiss, A., Dishion, T., & Fisher, P. A. (2014). Emotion regulation among preschoolers on a continuum of risk: The role of maternal emotion coaching. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 965–974. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9752-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein-Ngo, Q., Maurizi, L. K., Bregman, A., & Ceballo, R. (2013). In response to community violence: Coping strategies and involuntary stress responses among Latino adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19, 38–49. doi:10.1037/a0029753CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fosco, G. M., & Grych, J. H. (2013). Capturing the family context of emotion regulation: A family systems model comparison approach. Journal of Family Issues, 34(4), 557–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, N. A., & Leavitt, L. A. (1995). The violence exposure scale for children-revised (VEX-R). College Park, MD: University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Frankenburg, W. K., & Coons, C. E. (1986). Home Screening Questionnaire: Its validity in assessing home environment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 108, 624–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.222CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottman, J. M., & Katz, L. F. (1989). Effects of marital discord on young children's peer interaction and health. Developmental Psychology, 25, 373–381. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.373CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54. doi:10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S. S., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10–12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 62–75. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. M. (2008). Early care experiences and HPA axis regulation in children: A mechanism for later trauma vulnerability. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 137–149. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67010-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Wewerka, S., Frenn, K., Long, J. D., & Griggs, C. (2009). Developmental changes in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 69–85. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Wewerka, S., Frenn, K., Long, J. D., & Griggs, C. (2010). Developmental changes in hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 237–237. doi:10.1017/S095457940999037XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., Fox, N. A., & Jones, N. A. (1993). Do expressive mothers have expressive children? The role of socialization in children's affect expression. Social Development, 2, 48–65. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.1993.tb00004.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallion, L. S., Steinman, S. A., Tolin, D. F., & Diefenbach, G. J. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) and its short forms in adults with emotional disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 539. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00539CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hébert, M., Langevin, R., & Oussaïd, E. (2018). Cumulative childhood trauma, emotion regulation, dissociation, and behavior problems in school-aged sexual abuse victims. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 306–312. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.044CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., Sullivan, R. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2014). Psychobiological mechanisms underlying the social buffering of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis: A review of animal models and human studies across development. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 256–282. doi:10.1037/a0032671CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jovanovic, T., Nylocks, K. M., Gamwell, K. L., Smith, A., Davis, T. A., Norrholm, S. D., & Bradley, B. (2014). Development of fear acquisition and extinction in children: Effects of age and anxiety. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 113, 135–142. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.10.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kantor, G. K., Holt, M. K., Mebert, C. J., Straus, M. A., Drach, K. M., Ricci, L. R., … Brown, W. (2004). Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the multidimensional neglectful behavior scale-child report. Child Maltreatment, 9, 409–428. doi:10.1177/1077559504269530CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, L. F., & Rigterink, T. (2012). Domestic violence and emotion socialization: Domestic violence and emotion socialization. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 52–60. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00661.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim-Spoon, J., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2013). A longitudinal study of emotion regulation, emotion lability-negativity, and internalizing symptomatology in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Child Development, 84, 512–527. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01857.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology: Pathways linking maltreatment, emotion regulation, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliewer, W., Parrish, K. A., Taylor, K. W., Jackson, K., Walker, J. M., & Shivy, V. A. (2006). Socialization of coping with community violence: Influences of caregiver coaching, modeling, and family context. Child Development, 77, 605–623. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00893.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, H. K., King, K. M., Monahan, K. C., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2017). Differential associations of threat and deprivation with emotion regulation and cognitive control in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 929–940. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000584CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loman, M. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 867–876. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lykken, D. T. (1972). Range correction applied to heart rate and to GSR data. Psychophysiology, 9, 373–379. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1972.tb03222.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lykken, D. T., & Venables, P. H. (1971). Direct measurement of skin conductance: A proposal for standardization. Psychophysiology, 8, 656–672. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1971.tb00501.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Machlin, L. S., Miller, A. B., Snyder, J., McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2019). Differential associations between deprivation and threat with cognitive control and fear conditioning in early childhood. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 80. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00080CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00488CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 146–167. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Peverill, M., Gold, A. L., Alves, S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2015). Child maltreatment and neural systems underlying emotion regulation. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 753–762. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.06.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Beyond cumulative risk: A dimensional approach to childhood adversity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 239–245. doi:10.1177/0963721416655883CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Alves, S., & Mendes, W. B. (2014). Child maltreatment and autonomic nervous system reactivity: Identifying dysregulated stress reactivity patterns by using the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 76, 538–546. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000098CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Gold, A. L., Duys, A., Lambert, H. K., Peverill, M., … Pine, D. S. (2016). Maltreatment exposure, brain structure, and fear conditioning in children and adolescents. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 1956–1964. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.365CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2014). Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 578–591. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, S., Raikes, H. A., Virmani, E. A., Waters, S., & Thompson, R. A. (2014). Parent emotion representations and the socialization of emotion regulation in the family. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 164–173. doi:10.1177/0165025413519014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, A. B., Sheridan, M. A., Hanson, J. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Bates, J. E., Lansford, J. E., … Dodge, K. A. (2018). Dimensions of deprivation and threat, psychopathology, and potential mediators: A multi-year longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127, 160–170. doi:10.1037/abn0000331CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, J. S., Charlesworth, J. R., Gold, R. G., Gold, S. R., & Friesen, M. R. (1988). Convergent validity of the child abuse potential inventory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 281–285.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milojevich, H. M., & Haskett, M. E. (2018). Longitudinal associations between physically abusive parents’ emotional expressiveness and children's self-regulation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 77, 144–154. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milojevich, H. M., Levine, L. J., Cathcart, E. J., & Quas, J. A. (2018). The role of maltreatment in the development of coping strategies. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 54, 23–32. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2017.10.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milojevich, H. M., Norwalk, K. E., & Sheridan, M. A. (2019). Deprivation and threat, emotion dysregulation, and psychopathology: Concurrent and longitudinal associations. Development and Psychopathology, 31, 847–857. doi:10.1017/S0954579419000294CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Morris, M. D. S., Steinberg, L., Aucoin, K. J., & Keyes, A. W. (2011). The influence of mother–child emotion regulation strategies on children's expression of anger and sadness. Developmental Psychology, 47, 213–225. doi:10.1037/a0021021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peisch, V., Dale, C., Parent, J., & Burt, K. (2019). Parent socialization of coping and child emotion regulation abilities: A longitudinal examination. Family Process. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/famp.12516Google Scholar
Perez Rivera, M. B., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2011). Mothers’ acculturation and beliefs about emotions, mother–child emotion discourse, and children's emotion understanding in Latino families. Early Education & Development, 22, 324–354. doi:10.1080/10409281003702000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raver, C. C., & Spagnola, M. (2002). When My Mommy Was Angry, I Was Speechless: Children's perceptions of maternal emotional expressiveness within the context of economic hardship. Marriage & Family Review, 34, 63–88. doi:10.1300/J002v34n01_04CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, L. R., Morris, A. S., Heller, S. S., Scheeringa, M. S., Boris, N. W., & Smyke, A. T. (2009). Relations between emotion regulation, parenting, and psychopathology in young maltreated children in out of home care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 421–434. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9246-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, M. L., Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., MacCormack, J. K., & Garrett-Peters, P. (2016). Maternal emotion socialization differentially predicts third-grade children's emotion regulation and lability. Emotion, 16, 280–291. doi:10.1037/emo0000142CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romens, S. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Emotion regulation predicts attention bias in maltreated children at-risk for depression: Emotion regulation in maltreated children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 120–127. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02474.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaffer, A., Suveg, C., Thomassin, K., & Bradbury, L. L. (2012). Emotion socialization in the context of family risks: Links to child emotion regulation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 917–924. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9551-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 379–405. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2014). Dimensions of early experience and neural development: Deprivation and threat. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 580–585. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.09.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Neurobiological models of the impact of adversity on education.. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 108–113. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.05.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, M. A., Peverill, M., Finn, A. S., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2017). Dimensions of childhood adversity have distinct associations with neural systems underlying executive functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 29(5), 1777–1794. doi:10.1017/S0954579417001390CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 27, 381–395. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). The development of an emotion regulation assessment battery: Reliability and validity among at-risk grade-school children. Poster Presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Indianapolis, IN.Google Scholar
Shields, A. M., Cicchetti, D., & Ryan, R. M. (1994). The development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation and social competence among maltreated school-age children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 57–75. doi:10.1017/S0954579400005885CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shipman, K., Edwards, A, Brown, A, Swisher, L., & Jennings, E.. (2005). Managing emotion in a maltreating context: A pilot study examining child neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(9), 1015–1029. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.01.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipman, K. L., Schneider, R., Fitzgerald, M. M., Sims, C., Swisher, L., & Edwards, A. (2007). Maternal emotion socialization in maltreating and non-maltreating families: Implications for children's emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 268–285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00384.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipman, K. L., & Zeman, J. (2001). Socialization of children's emotion regulation in mother–child dyads: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 317–336. doi:10.1017/S0954579401002073CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silvers, J. A., Lumian, D. S., Gabard-Durnam, L., Gee, D. G., Goff, B., Fareri, D. S., … Tottenham, N. (2016). Previous institutionalization is followed by broader amygdala–hippocampal–pfc network connectivity during aversive learning in human development. Journal of Neuroscience, 36, 6420–6430. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0038-16.2016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., … Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S. U. E., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316. doi:10.1177/019251396017003001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol functioning in family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48, 237–249. doi:10.1037/a0025419CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarullo, A. R., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2007). False belief and emotion understanding in post-institutionalized children. Social Development, 16, 57–78. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00372.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thabet, A. A. M., Tischler, V., & Vostanis, P. (2004). Maltreatment and coping strategies among male adolescents living in the Gaza Strip. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 77–91. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2002.12.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. A., & Meyer, S. (2007). Socialization of emotion regulation in the family. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.) Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 249–268). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., … Casey, B. J. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation: Previous institutionalization. Developmental Science, 13, 46–61. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar