Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pftt2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-17T07:35:04.829Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Transgenerational associations between maternal childhood stress exposure and profiles of infant emotional reactivity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 April 2019

Alison E. Hipwell ,
Irene Tung ,
Jessie Northrup  and
Kate Keenan
Alison E. Hipwell*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Irene Tung
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Jessie Northrup
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Kate Keenan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Alison E. Hipwell, Department of Psychiatry, 3811 O'Hara Street, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213; E-mail: hipwae@upmc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood exposure to stress can induce prolonged negative effects on health, which in turn confer risks for the next generation, but greater specificity is needed to inform intervention. A first step is to measure individual differences in emotional reactivity to stress early in life in ways that can account for heterogeneity in child exposure. The present study tested the hypothesis that mothers’ childhood exposure to stress would be differentially associated with patterns of positive and negative emotional reactivity in their offspring, suggesting transmission of stress response across generations. Participants were 268 young mothers (age 14–23 years) followed longitudinally since childhood, and their infants aged 3–9 months. Latent class analysis of infant emotions expressed before and during the still-face paradigm yielded five subgroups that varied in valence, intensity, and reactivity. After accounting for sociodemographic factors, infant temperament, and postpartum depression, multinomial regression models showed that, relative to an emotionally regulated still-face response, infants showing low negative reactivity were more likely to have mothers exposed to childhood emotional abuse, and infants showing high and increasing negative reactivity were more likely to have mothers exposed to childhood emotional neglect. Mechanisms by which early maternal stress exposure influences emotional reactivity in offspring are discussed.

Keywords

childhood stressemotional reactivityemotion dysregulationtransgenerationalstill-face response
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 3: Emotion Dysregulation and Emerging Psychopathology , August 2019 , pp. 887 - 898
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamson, L. B., & Frick, J. E. (2003). The still face: A history of a shared experimental paradigm. Infancy, 4, 451–473. doi:10.1207/S15327078IN0404_01Google Scholar
Agresti, A. (2007). An introduction to categorical data analysis. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.10.1002/0470114754Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., … Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4Google Scholar
Bates, J., Freeland, C., & Lounsbury, M. (1979). The Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. Child Development, 48, 195–203.Google Scholar
Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2003). Distributional assumptions of growth mixture models: Implications for overextraction of latent trajectory classes. Psychological Methods, 8, 338. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.8.3.338Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: A transdiagnostic biomarker of emotion dysregulation and psychopathology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 43–47. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.017Google Scholar
Bosquet Enlow, M., Englund, M. M., & Egeland, B. (2018). Maternal childhood maltreatment history and child mental health: Mechanisms in intergenerational effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47, 547–562. doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1144189Google Scholar
Bosquet Enlow, M., Kitts, R. L., Blood, E., Bizarro, A., Hofmeister, M., & Wright, R. J. (2011). Maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and infant emotional reactivity and emotion regulation. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 487–503. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.07.007Google Scholar
Bowers, M. E., & Yehuda, R. (2016). Intergenerational transmission of stress in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 232–244. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.247Google Scholar
Boyce, W., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary-developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050145Google Scholar
Brand, S. R., Brennan, P. A., Newport, D. J., Smith, A. K., Weiss, T., & Stowe, Z. N. (2010). The impact of maternal childhood abuse on maternal and infant HPA axis function in the postpartum period. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 686–693. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.10.009Google Scholar
Brand, S. R., Engel, S. M., Canfield, R. L., & Yehuda, R. (2006). The effect of maternal PTSD following in utero trauma exposure on behavior and temperament in the 9-month-old infant. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 454–458. doi:10.1196/annals.1364.041Google Scholar
Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Garwood, M. M., Powers, B. P., & Wang, X. (2001). Parental sensitivity, infant affect, and affect regulation: Predictors of later attachment. Child Development, 72, 252–270. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00277Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., Dedmon, S. E., Gill, K. L., Lomax, L. E., & Johnson, L. M. (2002). Frustration in infancy: Implications for emotion regulation, physiological processes, and temperament. Infancy, 3, 175–197. doi:10.1207/S15327078IN0302Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). About the CDC-Kaiser ACE Study. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/acestudy/about.htmlGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 1–10. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006301Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Banny, A. (2014). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child maltreatment. In Lewis, M. D. & Rudolph, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 723–741). Boston: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4614-9608-3_37Google Scholar
Cohn, J. F., Campbell, S. B., & Ross, S. (1991). Infant response in the still-face paradigm at 6 months predicts avoidant and secure attachment at 12 months. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 367–376. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007574Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Hall, S., & Hajal, N. (2013). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 341–373). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Fox, N. A., Usher, B. A., & Welsh, J. D. (1996). Individual differences in emotion regulation and behavior problems in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 518–529. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.4.518Google Scholar
Collins, L. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis: With applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences (Vol. 718). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cox, J., Holden, J., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 782–786. doi:10.1192/bjp.150.6.782Google Scholar
Danese, A., & Lewis, S. J. (2017). Psychoneuroimmunology of early-life stress: The hidden wounds of childhood trauma? Neuropsychopharmacology, 42, 99–114. doi:10.1038/npp.2016.198Google Scholar
Davis, M., & Emory, E. (1995). Sex differences in neonatal stress reactivity. Child Development, 66, 14–27. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00852Google Scholar
Delahanty, D. L., & Nugent, N. R. (2006). Predicting PTSD prospectively based on prior trauma history and immediate biological responses. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 27–40. doi:10.1196/annals.1364.003Google Scholar
DeSantis, S. M., Baker, N. L., Back, S. E., Spratt, E., Ciolino, J. D., Moran-Santa Maria, M., … Brady, K. T. (2011). Gender differences in the effect of early life trauma on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis functioning. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 383–392. doi:10.1002/da.20795Google Scholar
Dias, B. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2014). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 89–96. doi:10.1038/nn.3594Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 495–525. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208Google Scholar
Ekas, N. V., Haltigan, J. D., & Messinger, D. S. (2013). The dynamic still-face effect: Do infants decrease bidding over time when parents are not responsive? Developmental Psychology, 49, 1027–1035. doi:10.1037/a0029330Google Scholar
Field, T. (1994). The effects of mother's physical and emotional unavailability on emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 208–227. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01286Google Scholar
Field, T., Diego, M., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2009). Depressed mothers’ infants are less responsive to faces and voices. Infant Behavior and Development, 32, 239–244. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.03.005Google Scholar
Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Diego, M., Feijo, L., Vera, Y., Gil, K., & Sanders, C. (2007). Still-face and separation effects on depressed mother–infant interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 28, 314–323. doi:10.1002/imhj.20138Google Scholar
Franklin, T. B., Russig, H., Weiss, I. C., Gräff, J., Linder, N., Michalon, A., … Mansuy, I. M. (2010). Epigenetic transmission of the impact of early stress across generations. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 408–415. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.036Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301Google Scholar
Gapp, K., Jawaid, A., Sarkies, P., Bohacek, J., Pelczar, P., Prados, J., … Mansuy, I. M. (2014). Implication of sperm RNAs in transgenerational inheritance of the effects of early trauma in mice. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 667–669. doi:10.1038/nn.3695Google Scholar
Glover, V., O'Connor, T., & O'Donnell, K. (2010). Prenatal stress and the programming of the HPA axis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 17–22. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.008Google Scholar
Graham, A. M., Pfeifer, J. H., Fisher, P. A., Lin, W., Gao, W., & Fair, D. A. (2015). The potential of infant fMRI research and the study of early life stress as a promising exemplar. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 12–39. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.005Google Scholar
Graham, K. A., Blissett, J., Antoniou, E. E., Zeegers, M. P., & McCleery, J. P. (2018). Effects of maternal depression in the Still-Face Paradigm: A meta-analysis. Infant Behavior and Development, 50, 154–164. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.12.001Google Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Vazquez, D. (2006). Stress neurobiology and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Develpomental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (pp. 233–277). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Haley, D. W., & Stansbury, K. (2003). Infant stress and parent responsiveness: Regulation of physiology and behavior during still-face and reunion. Child Development, 74, 1534–1546. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00621Google Scholar
Ham, J., & Tronick, E. (2009). Relational psychophysiology: Lessons from mother–infant physiology research on dyadically expanded states of consciousness. Psychotherapy Research, 19, 619–632. doi:10.1080/10503300802609672Google Scholar
Heim, C., & Binder, E. B. (2012). Current research trends in early life stress and depression: Review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene–environment interactions, and epigenetics. Experimental Neurology, 233, 102–111. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.10.032Google Scholar
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1023–1039. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01157Google Scholar
Heim, C., Shugart, M., Craighead, W. E., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2010). Neurobiological and psychiatric consequences of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 671–690. doi:10.1002/dev.20494Google Scholar
Hipwell, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Keenan, K., White, H. R., & Kroneman, L. (2002). Characteristics of girls with early onset disruptive and antisocial behaviour. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 12, 99–118. doi:10.1002/cbm.489Google Scholar
Humphreys, K. L., & Zeanah, C. H. (2015). Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 154–170. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.165Google Scholar
Keenan, K. (2000). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for child psychopathology. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 418–434. doi:10.1093/clipsy.7.4.418Google Scholar
Keenan, K., Hipwell, A., Chung, T., Stepp, S., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & McTigue, K. (2010). The Pittsburgh Girls Study: Overview and initial findings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 506–521. doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.486320Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202Google Scholar
Lang, A. J., Gartstein, M. A., Rodgers, C. S., & Lebeck, M. M. (2010). The impact of maternal childhood abuse on parenting and infant temperament. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 23, 100–110. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2010.00229Google Scholar
Leen-Feldner, E. W., Feldner, M. T., Knapp, A., Bunaciu, L., Blumenthal, H., & Amstadter, A. B. (2013). Offspring psychological and biological correlates of parental posttraumatic stress: Review of the literature and research agenda. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 1106–1133. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.001Google Scholar
Lethbridge, R., & Allen, N. B. (2008). Mood induced cognitive and emotional reactivity, life stress, and the prediction of depressive relapse. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 1142–1150. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.06.011Google Scholar
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (2005). Infant emotional and cortisol responses to goal blockage. Child Development, 76, 518–530. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00860Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Farrington, D., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Risk factors in childhood and adolescence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.10.4324/9781410602930Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (2003). Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511615788Google Scholar
Mantis, I., Mercuri, M., Stack, D. M., & Field, T. M. (2018). Depressed and non-depressed mothers’ touching during social interactions with their infants. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 35, 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.01.005Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Beyond cumulative risk: A dimensional approach to childhood adversity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 239–245. doi:10.1177/0963721416655883Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Tibu, F., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2015). Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on development of stress response systems in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 5637–5642. doi:10.1073/pnas.1423363112Google Scholar
Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). The many faces of the Still-Face Paradigm: A review and meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 29, 120–162. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2009.02.001Google Scholar
Monk, C., Spicer, J., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Linking prenatal maternal adversity to developmental outcomes in infants: The role of epigenetic pathways. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1361–1376. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000764Google Scholar
Moog, N. K., Entringer, S., Rasmussen, J. M., Styner, M., Gilmore, J. H., Kathmann, N., … Buss, C. (2018). Intergenerational effect of maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment on newborn brain anatomy. Biological Psychiatry, 83, 120–127. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.07.009Google Scholar
Moore, G. A. (2009). Infants’ and mothers’ vagal reactivity in response to anger. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1392–1400. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02171Google Scholar
Moore, G. A., Cohn, J. F., & Campbell, S. B. (2001). Infant affective responses to mother's still face at 6 months differentially predict externalizing and internalizing behaviors at 18 months. Developmental Psychology, 37, 706–714. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.706Google Scholar
Murray, L., & Carothers, A. (1990). The validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale on a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 288–290. doi:10.1192/bjp.157.2.288Google Scholar
Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (1998–2017). Mplus user's guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Myhre, M. C., Dyb, G. A., Wentzel-Larsen, T., Grøgaard, J. B., & Thoresen, S. (2014). Maternal childhood abuse predicts externalizing behaviour in toddlers: A prospective cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 42, 263–269. doi:10.1177/1403494813510983Google Scholar
Noll, J. G., Trickett, P. K., Harris, W. W., & Putnam, F. W. (2009). The cumulative burden borne by offspring whose mothers were sexually abused as children: Descriptive results from a multigenerational study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 424–449. doi:10.1177/0886260508317194Google Scholar
Nylund, K., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569. doi:10.1080/10705510701575396Google Scholar
Parkes, A., Sweeting, H., & Wight, D. (2015). Parenting stress and parent support among mothers with high and low education. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 907–918. doi:10.1037/fam0000129Google Scholar
Provenzi, L., Borgatti, R., Menozzi, G., & Montirosso, R. (2015). A dynamic system analysis of dyadic flexibility and stability across the Face-to-Face Still-Face procedure: Application of the State Space Grid. Infant Behavior and Development, 38, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.10.001Google Scholar
Provenzi, L., Giusti, L., & Montirosso, R. (2016). Do infants exhibit significant cortisol reactivity to the Face-to-Face Still-Face paradigm? A narrative review and meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 42, 34–55. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.07.001Google Scholar
Rafferty, Y., Griffin, K. W., & Lodise, M. (2011). Adolescent motherhood and developmental outcomes of children in early head start: The influence of maternal parenting behaviors, well-being, and risk factors within the family setting. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 228–245. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01092Google Scholar
Ramsay, D., & Lewis, M. (2003). Reactivity and regulation in cortisol and behavioral responses to stress. Child Development, 74, 456–464. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.7402009Google Scholar
Rijlaarsdam, J., Stevens, G. W., Jansen, P. W., Ringoot, A. P., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., … Tiemeier, H. (2014). Maternal childhood maltreatment and offspring emotional and behavioral problems: Maternal and paternal mechanisms of risk transmission. Child Maltreatment, 19, 67–78. doi:10.1177/1077559514527639Google Scholar
Roberts, A. L., Lyall, K., Rich-Edwards, J. W., Ascherio, A., & Weisskopf, M. G. (2013). Association of maternal exposure to childhood abuse with elevated risk for autism in offspring. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 508–515. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.447Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., Oshri, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: A developmental cascade model. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 883–897. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000520Google Scholar
Rottenberg, J., Kasch, K. L., Gross, J. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2002). Sadness and amusement reactivity differentially predict concurrent and prospective functioning in major depressive disorder. Emotion, 2, 135–146. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.2.2.135Google Scholar
Rouse, M. H., & Goodman, S. H. (2014). Perinatal depression influences on infant negative affectivity: Timing, severity, and co-morbid anxiety. Infant Behavior and Development, 37, 739–751. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.001Google Scholar
Sandman, C. A., Davis, E. P., Buss, C., & Glynn, L. M. (2011). Prenatal programming of human neurological function. International Journal of Peptides, 2011, 837596. doi:10.1155/2011/837596Google Scholar
Schwartz, J., Bellinger, D., & Glass, T. (2011). Exploring potential sources of differential vulnerability and susceptibility in risk from environmental hazards to expand the scope of risk assessment. American Journal of Public Health, 101, S94–S101. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300272Google Scholar
Sravish, A. V., Tronick, E., Hollenstein, T., & Beeghly, M. (2013). Dyadic flexibility during the face-to-face still-face paradigm: A dynamic systems analysis of its temporal organization. Infant Behavior and Development, 36, 432–437. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.03.013Google Scholar
Stoller, S. A., & Field, T. (1982). Alteration of mother and infant behavior and heart rate during a still-face perturbation of face-to-face interaction. In Field, T. & Fogel, A. (Eds.), Emotion and early interaction (pp. 57–82). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316. doi:10.1177/019251396017003001Google Scholar
Striano, T., Liszkowski, U., & Group, C. O. (2005). Sensitivity to the context of facial expression in the still face at 3-, 6-, and 9-months of age. Infant Behavior and Development, 28, 10–19. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2004.06.004Google Scholar
Tees, M. T., Harville, E. W., Xiong, X., Buekens, P., Pridjian, G., & Elkind-Hirsch, K. (2010). Hurricane Katrina-related maternal stress, maternal mental health, and early infant temperament. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 14, 511–518. doi:10.1007/s10995-009-0486Google Scholar
Toda, S., & Fogel, A. (1993). Infant response to the still-face situation at 3 and 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 29, 532–538. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.3.532Google Scholar
Tronick, E., Als, H., Adamson, L., Wise, S., & Brazelton, T. (1978). The infant's response to entrapment between contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17, 1–13. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)62273-1Google Scholar
Tronick, E., & Cohn, J. (1989). Infant-mother face-to-face interaction: Age and gender differences in coordination and the occurrence of miscoordination. Child Development, 60, 85–92. doi:10.2307/1131074Google Scholar
Ursache, A., Noble, K. G., & Blair, C. (2015). Socioeconomic status, subjective social status, and perceived stress: Associations with stress physiology and executive functioning. Behavioral Medicine, 41, 145–154. doi:10.1080/08964289.2015.1024604Google Scholar
Vermunt, J. K., & Magidson, J. (2004). Latent class analysis. In Lewis-Beck, M. & Liao, T. (Eds.), The Sage encyclopedia of social sciences research methods (Vol. 2, pp. 549–553). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Weinberg, M., Olson, K. L., Beeghly, M., & Tronick, E. Z. (2006). Making up is hard to do, especially for mothers with high levels of depressive symptoms and their infant sons. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 670–683. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01545Google Scholar
Weinberg, M., Tronick, E. Z., Cohn, J. F., & Olson, K. L. (1999). Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35, 175–188. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.175Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Waschbusch, D. A., Moore, G. A., & Propper, C. B. (2011). Using the ASEBA to screen for callous unemotional traits in early childhood: Factor structure, temporal stability, and utility. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 19–30. doi:10.1007/s10862-010-9195-4Google Scholar
Zhang, T. Y., Labonté, B., Wen, X. L., Turecki, G., & Meaney, M. J. (2013). Epigenetic mechanisms for the early environmental regulation of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in rodents and humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38, 111–123. doi:10.1038/npp.2012.149Google Scholar