Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T02:09:45.858Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Out of harm's way: Secure versus insecure–disorganized attachment predicts less adolescent risk taking related to childhood poverty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2017

Brianna C. Delker ,
Rosemary E. Bernstein  and
Heidemarie K. Laurent
Brianna C. Delker*
Affiliation:
University of Washington University of Oregon
Rosemary E. Bernstein
Affiliation:
University of California, San Francisco
Heidemarie K. Laurent
Affiliation:
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Brianna C. Delker, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356560, Seattle, WA 98195-6560; E-mail: bcdelker@uw.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although some risk taking in adolescence is normative, evidence suggests that adolescents raised in conditions of socioeconomic disadvantage are disproportionately burdened with risk taking and its negative consequences. Using longitudinal data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, we investigated quality of the early caregiving environment as a potential prospective buffer against the long-term association between childhood poverty and adolescent risk taking. Multicategorical moderation model results indicated that if raised in poverty across age 1–54 months (average family income to needs ratio ≤ 1.02), relative to affluence (income to needs ratio ≥ 6.16), adolescents with histories of secure attachment to caregivers exhibited two times the number of risk behaviors at age 15, whereas adolescents with insecure–disorganized histories exhibited nearly five times the number of risk behaviors. Both early family economic hardship and history of insecure–disorganized attachment remained significant predictors of increased adolescent risk taking, alongside the interactive effect. Probing the interaction's region of significance revealed that history of secure (vs. insecure–disorganized) attachment is associated with protective reductions in risk taking below a family income to needs ratio of 2.24, or about 220% poverty level. Findings support a diathesis–stress model in which children with secure attachment histories are less deleteriously impacted by early socioeconomic adversity than their insecure–disorganized peers.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 283 - 296
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The authors gratefully acknowledge the families who participated in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) and the Early Child Care Research Network's team of investigators who designed and implemented the SECCYD study and made its data accessible to other researchers.

References

Ainsworth, M. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Oxford: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Basch, C. E. (2011). Teen pregnancy and the achievement gap among urban minority youth. Journal of School Health, 8, 614–618. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00635.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrendt, S., Wittchen, H. U., Höfler, M., Lieb, R., & Beesdo, K. (2009). Transitions from first substance use to substance use disorders in adolescence: Is early onset associated with a rapid escalation? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99, 68–78. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.06.014 Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2002). Infant–mother attachment security, contextual risk, and early development: A moderational analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 293–310. doi:10.1017/S0954579402002067 Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Schlomer, G. L., & Ellis, B. J. (2012). Beyond cumulative risk: Distinguishing harshness and unpredictability as determinants of parenting and early life history strategy. Developmental Psychology, 48, 662. doi:10.1037/a0024454 Google Scholar
Bernstein, R. E., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). Trauma at home: How betrayal trauma and attachment theories understand the human response to abuse by an attachment figure. Attachment: New Directions in Psychotherapy and Relational Psychoanalysis, 8, 18–41.Google Scholar
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). Child development in the context of adversity: Experiential canalization of brain and behavior. American Psychologist, 67, 309–318. doi:10.1037/a0027493 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bohlin, G., Eninger, L., Brocki, K. C., & Thorell, L. B. (2012). Disorganized attachment and inhibitory capacity: Predicting externalizing problem behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 449–458. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9574-7 Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1979). Making and breaking of affectional bonds. New York: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Boyer, T. W. (2006). The development of risk-taking: A multi-perspective review. Developmental Review, 26, 291–345. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.05.002 Google Scholar
Branstetter, S. A., & Furman, W. (2013). Buffering effect of parental monitoring knowledge and parent-adolescent relationships on consequences of adolescent substance use. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 192–198. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9568-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Brownell, C. A., Hungerford, A., Spieker, S. J., Mohan, R., & Blessing, J. S. (2004). The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 231–252. doi:10.1017/S0954579404044499 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128. doi:10.2307/1132365 Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Jones, J. D., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1415–1434. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000692 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., & Mohr, J. J. (2001). Unsolvable fear, trauma, and psychopathology: Theory, research, and clinical considerations related to disorganized attachment across the life span. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 275–298. doi:10.1093/clipsy.8.3.275 Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). Preventing child maltreatment through the promotion of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships between children and caregivers. Atlanta, GA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_strategic_direction--long-a.pd Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 50, 16–25. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01979.x Google Scholar
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). The implementation of the fast track program: An example of a large-scale prevention science efficacy trial. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 1–18. doi:10.1023/A:1014292830216 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1994). Families in troubled times: Adapting to change in rural America. New York: de Gruyter Google Scholar
Cyr, C., Euser, E. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2010). Attachment security and disorganization in maltreating and high-risk families: A series of meta-analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 87–108. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990289 Google Scholar
Daniel, J. Z., Hickman, M., Macleod, J., Wiles, N., Lingford-Hughes, A., Farrell, M., … Lewis, G. (2009). Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence. Drug and Alcohol Review, 28, 142–153. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2008.00042.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delker, B. C., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). From betrayal to the bottle: Investigating possible pathways from trauma to problematic substance use. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 576–584. doi:10.1002/jts.21959 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delker, B. C., Noll, L. K, Kim, H. K., & Fisher, P. A (2014). Maternal abuse history and self-regulation difficulties in preadolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 2033–2043. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.10.014 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DePrince, A. D., & Freyd, J. J. (2014). Trauma-induced dissociation. In Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (2nd ed., pp. 219–233). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 61–75. doi:110.1023/A:1021800432380 Google Scholar
Ein-Dor, T., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2011). Attachment insecurities and the processing of threat-related information: Studying the schemas involved in insecure people's coping strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 78–93. doi:10.1037/a0022503 Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J. (2013). Risky adolescent behavior: An evolutionary perspective. In Hewlett, B. L. (Ed.), Adolescent identity: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perspectives (pp. 40–72). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ethier, K. A., Harper, C. R., Hoo, E., & Dittus, P. J. (2016). The longitudinal impact of perceptions of parental monitoring on adolescent initiation of sexual activity. Journal of Adolescent Health. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.06.011 Google Scholar
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., & Cassells, R. C. (2014). Childhood poverty, cumulative risk exposure, and mental health in emerging adults. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 287–296. doi:10.1177/2167702613501496 Google Scholar
Evans, G. W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Gentile, L., & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16, 560–565. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01575.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self-regulation, and coping. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 43–48. doi:10.1111/cdep.12013 Google Scholar
Fearon, R. M, Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A.-M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.x Google Scholar
Fearon, R. M., & Belsky, J. (2004). Attachment and attention: Protection in relation to gender and cumulative social-contextual adversity. Child Development, 75, 1677–1693. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00809.x Google Scholar
Fearon, R. M., & Belsky, J. (2011). Infant-mother attachment and the growth of externalizing problems across the primary-school years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52, 782–791. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02350.x Google Scholar
Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2015). America's children: Key national indicators of well-being, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/phys8.asp Google Scholar
Fisher, G. M. (1992). Poverty guidelines for 1992. Social Security Bulletin, 55, 43–46.Google Scholar
Fisher, P. A., Beauchamp, K. G., Roos, L. E., Noll, L. K., Flannery, J., & Delker, B. C. (2016). The neurobiology of intervention and prevention in early adversity. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 331–357. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112855 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., Lester, B. M., DeGarmo, D. S., Lagasse, L. L., Lin, H., Shankaran, S., … Higgins, R. (2011). The combined effects of prenatal drug exposure and early adversity on neurobehavioral disinhibition in childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 777–788. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000290 Google Scholar
Forbes, E. E., Phillips, M. L., Silk, J. S., Ryan, N. D., & Dahl, R. E. (2011). Neural systems of threat processing in adolescents: Role of pubertal maturation and relation to measures of negative affect. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 429–452. doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.550178 Google Scholar
Fosco, G. M., Stormshak, E. A., Dishion, T. J., & Winter, C. E. (2012). Family relationships and parental monitoring during middle school as predictors of early adolescent problem behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 202–213. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.651989 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41, 625–635. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625 Google Scholar
Garwood, S. K., Gerassi, L., Jonson-Reid, M., Plax, K., & Drake, B. (2015). More than poverty: The effect of child abuse and neglect on teen pregnancy risk. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57, 164–168. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.05.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hackman, D. A., Farah, M. J., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status and the brain: Mechanistic insights from human and animal research. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 651–659. doi:10.1038/nrn2897 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234. doi:10.1001/archpedi.153.3.226 Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Huston, A. C., Miller, C., Richburg-Hayes, L., Duncan, G. J., Eldred, C. A., Weisner, T. S., … Redcross, C. (2003). New hope for families and children: Five-year results of a program to reduce poverty and reform welfare. New York: MDRC.Google Scholar
Jacobsen, T., Huss, M., Fendrich, M., Kruesi, M. J., & Ziegenhain, U. (1997). Children's ability to delay gratification: Longitudinal relations to mother-child attachment. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 158, 411–426. doi:10.1080/00221329709596679 Google Scholar
Jarjoura, G. R., Triplett, R. A., & Brinker, G. P. (2002). Growing up poor: Examining the link between persistent childhood poverty and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18, 159–187. doi:10.1023/A:1015206715838 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplow, J. B., Curran, P. J., Dodge, K. A., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). Child, parent, and peer predictors of early-onset substance use: A multisite longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 199–216. doi:10.1023/A:1015183927979 Google Scholar
Kennedy, F., Clarke, S., Stopa, L., Bell, L., Rouse, H., Ainsworth, C., … Waller, G. (2004). Towards a cognitive model and measure of dissociation. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 35, 25–48. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.01.002 Google Scholar
King, K. M., Meehan, B. T., Trim, R. S., & Chassin, L. (2006). Substance use and academic outcomes: Synthesizing findings and future directions. Addiction (Abingdon, England) , 101, 1688–1689. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01695.x Google Scholar
King, K. M., Patock-Peckham, J. A., Dager, A. D., Thimm, K., & Gates, J. R. (2014). On the mismeasurement of impulsivity: Trait, behavioral, and neural models in alcohol research among adolescents and young adults. Current Addiction Reports, 1, 19–32. doi:10.1007/s40429-013-0005-4 Google Scholar
Kissgen, R., & Franke, S. (2016). An attachment research perspective on ADHD. Neuropsychiatrie: Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie Und Rehabilitation, 30, 63–68. doi:10.1007/s40211-016-0182-1 Google Scholar
Kobak, R., Cassidy, J., Lyons-Ruth, K., & Ziv, Y. (2006). Attachment, stress, and psychopathology: A developmental pathways model. In Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 333–369). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lamborn, S., Mounts, N., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes. Child Development, 62, 1049–1065. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01588.x Google Scholar
Laurent, H. K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Fisher, P. A., Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2014). Stress system development from age 4.5 to 6: Family environment predictors and adjustment implications of HPA activity stability versus change. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 340–354. doi:10.1002/dev.21103 Google Scholar
Liu, J. (2004). Childhood externalizing behavior: Theory and implications. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 17, 93–103. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2004.tb00003.x Google Scholar
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639 Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Brown, P. J. (2007). Maximizing resilience through diverse levels of inquiry: Prevailing paradigms, possibilities, and priorities for the future. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 931–955. doi:10.1017/S0954579407000454 Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Moran, G., Pederson, D. R., & Benoit, D. (2006). Unresolved states of mind, anomalous parental behavior, and disorganized attachment: A review and meta-analysis of a transmission gap. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 89–111. doi:10.1080/14616730600774458 Google Scholar
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents’ unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 161–182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Martinez, G. M., & Abma, J. C. (2015). Sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing of teenagers aged 15–19 in the United States (NCHS Data Brief No. 209). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Future directions in childhood adversity and youth psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45, 361–382. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1110823 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S., … Moffitt, T. E. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, E2657–E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109 Google Scholar
Mishra, S., & Lalumière, M. (2009). Is the crime drop of the 1990s in Canada and the USA associated with a general decline in risky and health-related behavior? Social Science & Medicine, 68, 39–48. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.060 Google Scholar
Moilanen, K. L., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M. (2009). Predictors of longitudinal growth in inhibitory control in early childhood. Social Development (Oxford) , 19, 326–347. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00536.x Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514. doi:10.1023/A:1019821031523 Google Scholar
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004). Young children develop in an environment of relationships: Working paper no. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center on the Developing Child. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.net Google Scholar
Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 295–303. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x Google Scholar
Newacheck, P. W., Hughes, D. C., Hung, Y.-Y., Wong, S., & Stoddard, J. J. (2000). The unmet health needs of America's children. Pediatrics, 105(Suppl. 3), 989–997.Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2001). Nonmaternal care and family factors in early development: An overview of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 457–492. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(01)00092-2 Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Child care and child development: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H., Davis-Kean, P., Bates, J. E., … Dodge, K. A. (2013). Deconstructing the externalizing spectrum: Growth patterns of overt aggression, covert aggression, oppositional behavior, impulsivity/inattention, and emotion dysregulation between school entry and early adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 817–842. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000199 Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1984). The correlation of family management practices and delinquency. Child Development, 55, 1299–1307. doi:10.2307/1129999 Google Scholar
Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2 Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interaction effects in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448. doi:10.3102/10769986031004437 Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Newman, D. A., Fraley, R. C., Haltigan, J. D., Groh, A. M., & Haydon, K. C. (2012). Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis–stress: Recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 389–409. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000065 Google Scholar
Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Deković, M., & Matthys, W. (2013). Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 457–471. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9684-x Google Scholar
Schonberg, M. A., & Shaw, D. S. (2007). Risk factors for boy's conduct problems in poor and lower-middle-class neighborhoods. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 759–772. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9125-4 Google Scholar
Spirito, A., Jelalian, E., Rasile, D., Rohrbeck, C., & Vinnick, L. (2000). Adolescent risk taking and self-reported injuries associated with substance use. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 26, 113–123. doi:10.1081/ADA-100100594 Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268. doi:10.1017/S0954579497002046 Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Carlson, E. A., Levy, A. K., & Egeland, B. (1999). Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 1–13. doi:10.1017/S0954579499001923 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk taking in adolescence new perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00475.x Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002 Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Darling, N., Mounts, N. S., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 65, 754–770. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00781.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stride, C. B., Gardner, S., Catley, N., & Thomas, F. (2015). Mplus code for the mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation model templates from Andrew Hayes’ PROCESS analysis examples. Retrieved from http://www.offbeat.group.shef.ac.uk/FIO/mplusmedmod.htm Google Scholar
Strohschein, L. (2005). Household income histories and child mental health trajectories. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 359–375. doi:10.1177/002214650504600404 Google Scholar
Sulik, M. J., Blair, C., Mills-Koonce, R., Berry, D., Greenberg, M., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2015). Early parenting and the development of externalizing behavior problems: Longitudinal mediation through children's executive function. Child Development, 86, 1588–1603. doi:10.1111/cdev.12386 Google Scholar
Thorell, L. B., Rydell, A. M., & Bohlin, G. (2012). Parent-child attachment and executive functioning in relation to ADHD symptoms in middle childhood. Attachment & Human Development, 14, 517–532. doi:10.1080/14616734.2012.706396 Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–250. doi:10.1017/S0954579499002035 Google Scholar
Wadsworth, M. E., Evans, G. W., Grant, K., Cartere, J. S., & Duffy, S. (2016). Poverty and the development of psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 4. Risk, resilience, and intervention (pp. 136–179). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, M. E., Raviv, T., Reinhard, C., Wolff, B., Santiago, C. D., & Einhorn, L. (2008). An indirect effects model of the association between poverty and child functioning: The role of children's poverty-related stress. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 13, 156–185. doi:10.1080/15325020701742185 Google Scholar
Weller, J. A., & Fisher, P. A. (2013). Decision-making deficits among maltreated children. Child Maltreatment, 18, 184–194. doi:10.1177/1077559512467846 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weller, J. A., Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., Bhimji, J., & Fisher, P. A. (2015). Plasticity of risky decision-making among maltreated adolescents: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 535–551. doi:10.1017/S0954579415000140 Google Scholar