Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T08:53:47.970Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Circle of Security–Parenting: A randomized controlled trial in Head Start

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2017

Jude Cassidy ,
Bonnie E. Brett ,
Jacquelyn T. Gross ,
Jessica A. Stern ,
David R. Martin ,
Jonathan J. Mohr  and
Susan S. Woodhouse
Jude Cassidy*
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
Bonnie E. Brett
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
Jacquelyn T. Gross
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
Jessica A. Stern
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
David R. Martin
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
Jonathan J. Mohr
Affiliation:
University of Maryland at College Park
Susan S. Woodhouse
Affiliation:
Lehigh University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jude Cassidy, Department of Psychology, 2147C Biology/Psychology Building, University of Maryland, 4094 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20742; E-mail: jcassidy@umd.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although evidence shows that attachment insecurity and disorganization increase risk for the development of psychopathology (Fearon, Bakermans-Kranenburg, van IJzendoorn, Lapsley, & Roisman, 2010; Groh, Roisman, van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Fearon, 2012), implementation challenges have precluded dissemination of attachment interventions on the broad scale at which they are needed. The Circle of Security–Parenting Intervention (COS-P; Cooper, Hoffman, & Powell, 2009), designed with broad implementation in mind, addresses this gap by training community service providers to use a manualized, video-based program to help caregivers provide a secure base and a safe haven for their children. The present study is a randomized controlled trial of COS-P in a low-income sample of Head Start enrolled children and their mothers. Mothers (N = 141; 75 intervention, 66 waitlist control) completed a baseline assessment and returned with their children after the 10-week intervention for the outcome assessment, which included the Strange Situation. Intent to treat analyses revealed a main effect for maternal response to child distress, with mothers assigned to COS-P reporting fewer unsupportive (but not more supportive) responses to distress than control group mothers, and a main effect for one dimension of child executive functioning (inhibitory control but not cognitive flexibility when maternal age and marital status were controlled), with intervention group children showing greater control. There were, however, no main effects of intervention for child attachment or behavior problems. Exploratory follow-up analyses suggested intervention effects were moderated by maternal attachment style or depressive symptoms, with moderated intervention effects emerging for child attachment security and disorganization, but not avoidance; for inhibitory control but not cognitive flexibility; and for child internalizing but not externalizing behavior problems. This initial randomized controlled trial of the efficacy of COS-P sets the stage for further exploration of “what works for whom” in attachment intervention.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Special Issue 2: Attachment in the Context of Atypical Caregiving: Harnessing Insights From a Developmental Psychopathology Perspective , May 2017 , pp. 651 - 673
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The Zanvyl and Isabelle Krieger Fund provided support to Jude Cassidy to conduct this study. Additional support for manuscript preparation was provided by Janet W. Johnson Fellowships (to J.T.G. and D.M.), the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program Fellowship (to J.A.S.), and Grant R01 HD068594 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (to S.S.W.). We are grateful for the help of the following people: Betsy Krieger, Karen Kreisberg, Linda Heisner, and Brooke Hisle provided important leadership and coordination; Glen Cooper, Kent Hoffman, and Bert Powell developed the Circle of Security–Parenting intervention and served as intervention supervisors; Anna Ditkoff-Dorsey, Tara Doaty, Pam Hoehler, and Barbara Johnson served as interveners; Danielle Gregg and Elizabeth Thompson provided and coordinated laboratory space at the Family Center at Kennedy Krieger Institute in Baltimore, Maryland; Erika Johnson conducted waitlist control Circle of Security–Parenting groups; Susan Paris and Bonnie Conley assisted with Strange Situation coding; Audrey Bigham and Ben Mitchell supervised the executive functioning coding teams and managed the executive functioning data; Samiha Islam compiled the reference list; and many hardworking and dedicated undergraduate research assistants assisted with data collection and coding. We also thank the directors and staff of the participating Head Start centers: Dayspring Programs, Emily Price Jones Head Start/Y of Central Maryland, and Catholic Charities Head Start of Baltimore City. Above all, we are grateful to the families who generously participated in our study.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 195–215.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventive interventions: A review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 191–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Kroonenberg, P. M. (2004). Differences in attachment security between African-American and white children: Ethnicity or socio-economic status? Infant Behavior and Development, 27, 417–433.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Pijlman, F. T. A., Mesman, J., & Juffer, F. (2008). Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers’ externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 44, 293–300.Google Scholar
Baldwin, S. A., Bauer, D. J., Stice, E., & Rohde, P. (2011). Evaluating models for partially clustered designs. Psychological Methods, 16, 149–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, D. J., Sterba, S. K., & Hallfors, D. D. (2008). Evaluating group-based interventions when control participants are ungrouped. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 43, 210–236.Google Scholar
Beck, D. M., Schaefer, C., Pang, K., & Carlson, S. M. (2011). Executive function in preschool children: Test–retest reliability. Journal of Cognition and Development, 12, 169–193.Google Scholar
Beekman, A. T., Deeg, D. J., van Limbeek, J., Braam, A. W., De Vries, M. Z., & van Tilburg, W. (1997). Criterion validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D): Results from a community-based sample of older subjects in the Netherlands. Psychological Medicine, 27, 231–235.Google Scholar
Bellg, A. J., Borrelli, B., Resnick, B., Hecht, J., Minicucci, D. S., Ory, M., … Czajkowski, S. (2004). Enhancing treatment fidelity in health behavior change studies: Best practices and recommendations from the NIH Behavior Change Consortium. Health Psychology, 23, 443–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berlin, L. J., Zeanah, C. H., & Lieberman, A. F. (2016). Prevention and intervention programs to support early attachment security: A move to the level of community. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 739–758). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bernard, K., & Dozier, M. (2010). Examining infants’ cortisol responses to laboratory tasks among children varying in attachment disorganization: Stress reactivity or return to baseline? Developmental Psychology, 46, 1771–1778.Google Scholar
Bernard, K., Dozier, M., Bick, J., Lewis-Morrarty, E., Lindhiem, O., & Carlson, E. (2012). Enhancing attachment organization among maltreated children: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Child Development, 83, 623–636.Google Scholar
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., Deschênes, M., & Matte-Gagné, C. (2012). Social factors in the development of early executive functioning: A closer look at the caregiving environment. Developmental Science, 15, 12–24.Google Scholar
Bernier, A., & Dozier, M. (2003). Bridging the attachment transmission gap: The role of maternal mind-mindedness. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 355–365.Google Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Mills-Koonce, R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., … Fortunato, C. K. (2008). Maternal and child contributions to cortisol response to emotional arousal in young children from low-income, rural communities. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1095–1109.Google Scholar
Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647–663.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult romantic attachment: An integrative overview. In Simpson, J. A. & Rholes, W. S. (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bugental, D. B., Martorell, G. A., & Barraza, V. (2003). The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 237–244.Google Scholar
Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 205–228.Google Scholar
Byar, D. P. (1985). Assessing apparent treatment—Covariate interactions in randomized clinical trials. Statistics in Medicine, 4, 255–263.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M. (2003). Executive function in context: Development, measurement, theory, and experience. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68(3, Serial No. 274), 138–151.Google Scholar
Caron, E. B., Weston-Lee, P., Haggerty, D., & Dozier, M. (2015). Community implementation outcomes of Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up. Child Abuse & Neglect, 53, 128–137.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Ehrlich, K. B., & Sherman, L. J. (2013). Child-parent attachment and response to threat: A move from the level of representation. In Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Nature and development of social connections: From brain to group (pp. 125–144). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Marvin, R. S., & the MacArthur Attachment Working Group (1992). Attachment organization in preschool children: Coding guidelines (4th ed.). Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Woodhouse, S., Sherman, L., Stupica, B., & Lejuez, C. (2011). Enhancing infant attachment security: An examination of treatment efficacy and differential susceptibility. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 131–148.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Ziv, Y., Stupica, B., Sherman, L. J., Butler, H., Karfgin, A., … Powell, B. (2010). Enhancing maternal sensitivity and attachment security in the infants of women in a jail-diversion program. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 333–353.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 623–649.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1997). Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Lynch, M. (1995). Bowlby's dream comes full circle: The application of attachment theory to risk and psychopathology. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 1–75.Google Scholar
Clark, C. H., Mahoney, J. S., Clark, D. J., & Eriksen, L. R. (2002). Screening for depression in a hepatitis C population: The reliability and validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40, 361–369.Google Scholar
Colonnesi, C., Draijer, E. M., Jan, J. M., Stams, G., Van der Bruggen, C. O., Bögels, S. M., & Noom, M. J. (2011). The relation between insecure attachment and child anxiety: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 630–645.Google Scholar
Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Powell, B. (2009). Circle of Security Parenting: A relationship based parenting program. Facilitator DVD Manual 5.0. Spokane, WA: Circle of Security International.Google Scholar
Crowell, J., Fraley, R. C., & Roisman, G. I. (2016). Measures of individual differences in adult attachment. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 598–635). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Daly, K. D., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2009). Experienced therapists’ approach to psychotherapy for adults with attachment avoidance or attachment anxiety. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 549–563.Google Scholar
Daniel, S. I. F. (2006). Adult attachment patterns and individual psychotherapy: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 968–984.Google Scholar
DeKlyen, M., & Greenberg, M. T. (2016). Attachment and psychopathology in childhood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 639–666). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Del Carmen, R., Pedersen, F. A., Huffman, L. C., & Bryan, Y. E. (1993). Dyadic distress management predicts subsequent security of attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 131–147.Google Scholar
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptative processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 3–25.Google Scholar
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50–76.Google Scholar
Drury, S. S. (2012). Maternal sensitivity and attachment: Softening the impact of early adversity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 670–672.Google Scholar
Eames, V., & Roth, A. (2000). Patient attachment orientation and the early working alliance—A study of patient and therapist reports of alliance quality and ruptures. Psychotherapy Research, 10, 421–434.Google Scholar
Edelstein, R. S., Alexander, K. W., Shaver, P. R., Schaaf, J. M., Quas, J. A., Lovas, G. S., & Goodman, G. S. (2004). Adult attachment style and parental responsiveness during a stressful event. Attachment & Human Development, 6, 31–52.Google Scholar
Egeland, B., & Erickson, M. (2004). Lessons from STEEP: Linking theory, research and practice on the well-being of infants and parents. In Sameroff, A., McDonough, S., & Rosenblum, K. (Eds.), Treating parent-infant relationship problems: Strategies for intervention (pp. 213–242). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., Silva, K. M., Reiser, M., Hofer, C., … Michalik, N. (2010). Relations among maternal socialization, effortful control, and maladjustment in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 507–525.Google Scholar
Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456.Google Scholar
Fearon, R. P., & Belsky, J. (2016). Precursors of attachment security. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 291–313). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, R. (2012). Bio-behavioral synchrony: A model for integrating biological and microsocial behavioral processes in the study of parenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 12, 154–164.Google Scholar
Field, T., Estroff, D. B., Yando, R., del Valle, C., Malphurs, J., & Hart, S. (1996). “Depressed” mothers’ perceptions of infant vulnerability are related to later development. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 27, 43–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzpatrick, C., McKinnon, R. D., Blair, C. B., & Willoughby, M. T. (2014). Do preschool executive function skills explain the school readiness gap between advantaged and disadvantaged children? Learning and Instruction, 30, 25–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankel, K. A., & Harmon, R. J. (1996). Depressed mothers: They don't always look as bad as they feel. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 289–298.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 56, 127–136.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Dishion, T. J., & Kaufman, N. K. (2009). Depressed mood and maternal report of child behavior problems: Another look at the depression-distortion hypothesis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 149–160.Google Scholar
Glasgow, R. E., Lichtenstein, E., & Marcus, A. C. (2003). Why don't we see more translation of health promotion to research to practice? Rethinking the efficacy-to-effectiveness transition. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1261–1267.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., Blokland, K., & Madigan, S. (2003). Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 239–257.Google Scholar
Groh, A. M., Roisman, G. I., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Fearon, R. P. (2012). The significance of insecure and disorganized attachment in the development of children's internalizing symptoms: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 83, 591–610.Google Scholar
Grusec, J. E., & Davidov, M. (2010). Integrating different perspectives on socialization theory and research: A domain-specific approach. Child Development, 81, 687–709.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gudmundson, J. A., & Leerkes, E. M. (2012). Links between mothers’ coping styles, toddler reactivity, and sensitivity to toddler's negative emotions. Infant Behavior & Development, 35, 158–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gupta, S. K. (2011). Intention-to-treat concept: A review. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 2, 109–112.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Krippendorff, K. (2007). Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication Methods and Measures, 1, 77–89.Google Scholar
Heinicke, C., Fineman, N., Ponce, V., & Guthrie, D. (2001). Relation-based intervention with at-risk mothers: Outcome in the second year of life. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 431–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, K., Marvin, R., Cooper, G., & Powell, B. (2006). Changing toddlers’ and preschoolers’ attachment classifications: The Circle of Security Intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1017–1026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, A., McMahon, C., & Sweller, N. (2015a). Efficacy of the 20-week circle of security intervention: Changes in caregiver reflective functioning, representations, and child attachment in an Australian clinical sample. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36, 556–574.Google Scholar
Huber, A., McMahon, C., & Sweller, N. (2015b). Improved child behavioural and emotional functioning after Circle of Security 20-week intervention. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 547–569.Google Scholar
Ialongo, N., Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., Buckley, J., Petras, H., & Neiderhiser, J. (2006). A developmental psychopathology approach to the prevention of mental health disorders. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 968–1018). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Jones, J. D., Brett, B. E., Ehrlich, K. B., Lejuez, C. W., & Cassidy, J. (2014). Maternal attachment style and responses to adolescents’ negative emotions: The mediating role of maternal emotion regulation. Parenting: Science and Practice, 14, 235–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J. D., Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (2015). Parents’ self-reported attachment styles: A review of links with parenting behaviors, emotions, and cognitions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 44–76.Google Scholar
Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2008). Promoting positive parenting: An attachment-based intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Coy, K. C. (1997). Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 68, 263–277.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507.Google Scholar
Lambert, M. J. (2010). Prevention of treatment failure: The use of measuring, monitoring, and feedback in clinical practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Blankson, A. N., & O'Brien, M. (2009). Differential effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress on social-emotional functioning. Child Development, 80, 762–775.Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Gedaly, L., & Su, J. (2016). Parental sensitivity and infant attachment. In Balter, L. & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 21–42). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Weaver, J. M., & O'Brien, M. (2012). Differentiating maternal sensitivity to infant distress and non-distress. Parenting: Science and Practice, 12, 175–184.Google Scholar
Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2005). “Don't hit my mommy!”: A manual for child-parent psychotherapy with young witnesses of family violence. Washington, DC: Zero to Three.Google Scholar
Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2008). Psychotherapy with infants and young children: Repairing the effects of stress and trauma on early attachment. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lieberman, M. D., Eisenberger, N. I., Crockett, M. J., Tom, S. M., Pfeifer, J. H., & Way, B. M. (2007). Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli. Psychological Science, 18, 421–428.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 53–70.Google Scholar
Lind, T., Raby, L., Caron, E., Roben, C. K. P., & Dozier, M. (2017). Enhancing executive functioning among toddlers in foster care with an attachment-based intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 575–586.Google Scholar
Lucassen, N., Kok, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Jaddoe, V. V., Hofman, A., … Tiemeier, H. (2015). Executive functions in early childhood: The role of maternal and paternal parenting practices. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 33, 489–505.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D. B., Grunebaum, H. U., & Botein, S. (1990). Infants at social risk: Maternal depression and family support services as mediators of infant development and security of attachment. Child Development, 61, 85–98.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (2016). Attachment disorganization from infancy to adulthood: Neurobiological correlates, parenting contexts, and pathways to disorder. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 667–695). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2005). Expanding the concept of unresolved mental states: Hostile/helpless states of mind on the Adult Attachment Interview are associated with disrupted mother–infant communication and infant disorganization. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1–23.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of attachment organization: Recent studies, changing methodologies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Human Development, 33, 48–61.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (1994). Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. In Wang, M. C. & Gordon, E. W. (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 3–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. (2016). Adult attachment and emotion regulation. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 507–533). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Gillath, O., & Nitzberg, R. A. (2005). Attachment, caregiving, and altruism: Boosting attachment security increases compassion and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 817–839.Google Scholar
Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (2008). Evidence-based outcome research: A practical guide to conducting randomized controlled trials for psychosocial interventions. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Office of Head Start National Center on Program Management and Fiscal Operations. (2008). Head Start Program Fact Sheet Fiscal Year 2008. Retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/About%20Head%20Start/dHeadStartProgr.htm Google Scholar
Office of Head Start National Center on Program Management and Fiscal Operations. (2013). The balancing act: Reducing costs while maintaining quality. Retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/operations/docs/implementing-cost-reductions-tipsheet.pdf Google Scholar
Oosterman, M., De Schipper, J. C., Fisher, P., Dozier, M., & Schuengel, C. (2010). Autonomic reactivity in relation to attachment and early adversity among foster children. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 109–118.Google Scholar
Polan, H. J., & Hofer, M. A. (2016). Psychobiological origins of infant attachment and its role in development. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 739–758). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Polit, D. F., & Gillespie, B. M. (2010). Intention-to-treat in randomized controlled trials: Recommendations for a total trial strategy. Research in Nursing & Health, 33, 355–368.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1991). The use of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 149–165.Google Scholar
Raver, C. C., Blair, C., & Willoughby, M. (2013). Poverty as a predictor of 4-year-olds’ executive function: New perspectives on models of differential susceptibility. Developmental Psychology, 49, 292–304.Google Scholar
Reed, M. A., Pien, D. L., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30, 131–147.Google Scholar
Robinson, J., & Emde, R. N. (2004). Mental health moderators of Early Head Start on parenting and child development: Maternal depression and relationship attitudes. Parenting: Science and Practice, 4, 73–97.Google Scholar
Rochette, É., & Bernier, A. (2014). Parenting, family socioeconomic status, and child executive functioning: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 60, 431–460.Google Scholar
Rothwell, P. M. (2005). Subgroup analysis in randomised controlled trials: Importance, indications, and interpretation. Lancet, 365, 176–186.Google Scholar
Sadler, L. S., Slade, A., Close, N., Webb, D. L., Simpson, T., Fennie, K., & Mayes, L. C. (2013). Minding the baby: Enhancing reflectiveness to improve early health and relationship outcomes in an interdisciplinary home-visiting program. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34, 391–405.Google Scholar
Salande, J. D., & Hawkins, R. I. (2016). Psychological flexibility, attachment style, and personality organization: Correlations between constructs of differing approaches. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Schachar, R., & Logan, G. D. (1990). Impulsivity and inhibitory control in normal development and childhood psychopathology. Developmental Psychology, 26, 710–720.Google Scholar
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.Google Scholar
Seitz, V. (1981). Intervention and sleeper effects: A reply to Clarke and Clarke. Developmental Review, 1, 361–373.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., Richter, L., van der Gaag, J., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2012). An integrated scientific framework for child survival and early childhood development. Pediatrics, 129, e460–e472.Google Scholar
Slade, A. (2016). Attachment and adult psychotherapy: Theory, research, and practice. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 759–779). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Slade, A., Grienenberger, J., Bernbach, E., Levy, D., & Locker, A. (2005). Maternal reflective functioning, attachment, and the transmission gap: A preliminary study. Attachment & Human Development, 7, 283–298.Google Scholar
Solomon, J., & George, C. (2016). The measurement of attachment security and related constructs. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 366–396). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Spieker, S., Nelson, D., DeKlyen, M., & Staerkel, F. (2005). Enhancing early attachments in the context of Early Head Start: Can programs emphasizing family support improve rates of secure infant–mother attachments in low-income families? In Berlin, L. J., Ziv, Y., Amaya-Jackson, L., & Greenberg, M. T. (Eds.), Enhancing early attachments: Theory, research, intervention and policy (pp. 250–275). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, B., Popp, T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., … Hofer, C. (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers’ effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1170–1186.Google Scholar
Steele, H., & Steele, M. (Eds.). (in press). Handbook of attachment-based interventions. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stern, J. A., Borelli, J. L., & Smiley, P. A. (2015). Assessing parental empathy: A role for empathy in child attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 1–22.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (2016). Early attachment and later development: Reframing the questions. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 330–348). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., & Gravener, J. (2012). Bridging research and practice: Relational interventions for maltreated children. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 17, 131–138.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2006). Depression in the lives of Early Head Start families. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/ehs/ehs_resrch/index.html Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). Head Start Act. Retrieved from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/standards/law Google Scholar
van Zeijl, J., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Juffer, F., Stolk, M. N., … Alink, L. R. A. (2006). Attachment-based intervention for enhancing sensitive discipline in mothers of 1- to 3-year-old children at risk for externalizing behavior problems: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 994–1005.Google Scholar
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2007). The Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR)—Short form: Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88, 187–204.Google Scholar
Whipple, N., Bernier, A., & Mageau, G. A. (2011). Broadening the study of infant security of attachment: Maternal autonomy-support in the context of infant exploration. Social Development, 20, 17–32.Google Scholar
Williford, A. P., Carter, L. M., & Pianta, R. C. (2016). Attachment and school readiness. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 966–982). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Woodhouse, S., Powell, B., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Cassidy, J. (in press). The Circle of Security Intervention: Design, research, and implementation. In Steele, H. & Steele, M. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment-based interventions. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1, 297–301.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Anderson, J. E., Richler, J., Wallner-Allen, K., Beaumont, J. L., & Weintraub, S. (2013). National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIH Toolbox CB): Validation for children between 3 and 15 years: II. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Measuring executive function and attention. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(4, Serial No. 309), 16–33.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11, 37–63.Google Scholar