Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x24gv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-09T01:44:09.114Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A process model of the implications of spillover from coparenting conflicts into the parent–child attachment relationship in adolescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2017

Meredith J. Martin ,
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple ,
Patrick T. Davies ,
Christine V. Romero  and
Abigail Buckholz
Meredith J. Martin*
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Patrick T. Davies
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Christine V. Romero
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Abigail Buckholz
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Meredith J. Martin, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627; E-mail: mmartin@psych.rochester.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Drawing on a two-wave, multimethod, multi-informant design, this study provides the first test of a process model of spillover specifying why and how disruptions in the coparenting relationship influence the parent–adolescent attachment relationship. One hundred ninety-four families with an adolescent aged 12–14 (M age = 12.4) were followed for 1 year. Mothers and adolescents participated in two experimental tasks designed to elicit behavioral expressions of parent and adolescent functioning within the attachment relationship. Using a novel observational approach, maternal safe haven, secure base, and harshness (i.e., hostility and control) were compared as potential unique mediators of the association between conflict in the coparenting relationship and adolescent problems. Path models indicated that, although coparenting conflicts were broadly associated with maternal parenting difficulties, only secure base explained the link to adolescent adjustment. Adding further specificity to the process model, maternal secure base support was uniquely associated with adolescent adjustment through deficits in adolescents' secure exploration. Results support the hypothesis that coparenting disagreements undermine adolescent adjustment in multiple domains specifically by disrupting mothers' ability to provide a caregiving environment that supports adolescent exploration during a developmental period in which developing autonomy is a crucial stage-salient task.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Special Issue 2: Attachment in the Context of Atypical Caregiving: Harnessing Insights From a Developmental Psychopathology Perspective , May 2017 , pp. 417 - 431
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant 5R01HD06078905 (to M.L.S.-A. and P.T.D.). We are grateful to the teens and parents who participated in this project. Our gratitude is expressed to the staff on the project and the graduate and undergraduate students at the University of Rochester.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles: An integrated multi-informant assessment. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49–67. doi:10.2307/1127388 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social development: “Socialization” as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In Richards, P. M. (Ed.), The integration of a child into a social world (pp. 99–135). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P. (2008). The attachment system in adolescence. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 419–435). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P., Marsh, P., McFarland, C., McElhaney, K. B., Land, D. J., Jodl, K. M., & Peck, S. (2002). Attachment and autonomy as predictors of the development of social skills and delinquency during midadolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 56–66. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.56 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P., McElhaney, K. B., Land, D. J., Kuperminc, G. P., Moore, C. W., O'Beirne-Kelly, H., & Kilmer, S. L. (2003). A secure base in adolescence: Markers of attachment security in the mother–adolescent relationship. Child Development, 74, 292–307. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00536 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P., & Miga, E. M. (2010). Attachment in adolescence: A move to the level of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 181–190. doi:10.1177/0265407509360898 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. P., Porter, M., McFarland, C., McElhaney, K. B., & Marsh, P. (2007). The relation of attachment security to adolescents’ paternal and peer relationships, depression, and externalizing behavior. Child Development, 78, 1222–1239. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01062.x Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 195–215. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195 Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventative interventions: A review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 191–216. doi:10.1002/imhj.20046 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Mesman, J., Alink, L. R., & Juffer, F. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on daily cortisol moderated by dopamine receptor D4: A randomized control trial on 1- to 3-year-olds screened for externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 805–820. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000382 Google Scholar
Barber, B. K. (Ed.). (2002). Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Beijersbergen, M. D., Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2012). Remaining or becoming secure: Parental sensitive support predicts attachment continuity from infancy to adolescence in a longitudinal adoption study. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1277–1282. doi:10.1037/a0027442 Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Putnam, S., & Crnic, K. (1996). Coparenting, parenting, and early emotional development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 74, 45–55. doi:10.1002/cd.23219967405 Google Scholar
Booth-LaForce, C., Groh, A. M., Burchinal, M. R., Roisman, G. I., Owen, M. T., & Cox, M. J. (2014). Caregiving and contextual sources of continuity and change in attachment security from infancy to late adolescence. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 79(3, Serial No. 314), 67–84. doi:10.1111/mono.12114 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brown, G. L., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Neff, C. (2010). Observed and reported supportive coparenting as predictors of infant-mother and infant-father attachment security. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 121–137. doi:10.1080/03004430903415015 Google Scholar
Buehler, C., Benson, M. J., & Gerard, J. M. (2006). Interparental hostility and early adolescent problem behavior: The mediating role of specific aspects of parenting. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 265–292. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00132.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldera, Y. M., & Lindsey, E. W. (2006). Coparenting, mother-infant interaction, and infant-parent attachment relationships in two-parent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 275–283. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.275 Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., Jones, J. D., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1415–1434. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000692 Google Scholar
Chen, M., & Johnston, C. (2012). Interparent childrearing disagreement, but not dissimilarity, predicts child problems after controlling for parenting effectiveness. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41, 189–201. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.651997 Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502. doi:10.1006/drev.1993.1021 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, N. L., & Feeney, B. C. (2004). Working models of attachment shape perceptions of social support: Evidence from experimental and observational studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 363–383. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.363 Google Scholar
Collins, N. L., & Ford, M. B. (2010). Responding to the needs of others: The caregiving behavioral system in intimate relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 235–244. doi:10.1177/0265407509360907 Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00768.x Google Scholar
Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 243–267. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.243 Google Scholar
Cui, M., Donnellan, M. B., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Reciprocal influences between parents’ marital problems and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1544–1552. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1544 Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2010). Marital conflict and children: An emotional security perspective. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77, 44–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00855.x Google Scholar
Davies, P. T. (2015). Children's Reactions to Interparental Disagreements (CRID) coding system. Unpublished coding manual, University of Rochester.Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387 Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., Manning, L. G., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Tracing the cascade of children's insecurity in the interparental relationship: The role of stage-salient tasks. Child Development, 84, 297–312. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01844.x Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., & Martin, M. J. (2013). The reformulation of emotional security theory: The role of children's social defense in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1435–1454. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000709 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Woitach, M. J., & Cummings, E. M. (2009). A process analysis of the transmission of distress from interparental conflict to parenting: Adult relationship security as an explanatory mechanism. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1761–1773. doi:10.1037/a0016426 Google Scholar
De Wolff, M. S., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04218.x Google ScholarPubMed
Diamond, G. S., Diamond, G. M., & Levy, S. A. (2014). Attachment-based family therapy for depressed adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Diamond, G. S., Wintersteen, M. B., Brown, G. K., Diamond, G. M., Gallop, R., Shelef, K., & Levy, S. (2010). Attachment-based family therapy for adolescents with suicidal ideation: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 122–131. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2009.11.002 Google Scholar
Dorsey, S., Forehand, R., & Brody, G. (2007). Coparenting conflict and parenting behavior in economically disadvantaged single parent African American families: The role of maternal psychological distress. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 621–630. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9114-y Google Scholar
Dozier, M., & Roben, C. K. (2015). Attachment-related preventive interventions. In Simpson, J. A. & Rholes, W. S. (Eds.), Attachment theory and research: New directions and emerging themes (pp. 374–392). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Attachment and the processing of social information across the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 19–46. doi:10.1037/a0021367 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dykas, M. J., Woodhouse, S. S., Cassidy, J., & Waters, H. S. (2006). Narrative assessment of attachment representations: Links between secure base scripts and adolescent attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 221–240. doi:10.1080/14616730600856099 Google Scholar
Enders, C. K. (2001). The impact of nonnormality on full information maximum-likelihood estimation for structural equation models with missing data. Psychological Methods, 6, 352–370. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.6.4.352 Google Scholar
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 108–132. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.118.1.108 Google Scholar
Feeney, B. C. (2004). A secure base: Responsive support of goal strivings and exploration in adult intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 631–648. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.631 Google Scholar
Feeney, B. C., & Thrush, R. L. (2010). Relationship influences on exploration in adulthood: The characteristics and function of a secure base. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 57–76. doi:10.1037/a0016961 Google Scholar
Feeney, B. C., & Van Vleet, M. (2010). Growing through attachment: The interplay of attachment and exploration in adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 226–234. doi:10.1177/0265407509360903 Google Scholar
Feinberg, M. E., Jones, D. E., Hostetler, M. L., Roettger, M. E., Paul, I. M., & Ehrenthal, D. B. (2016). Couple-focused prevention at the transition to parenthood, a randomized trial: Effects on coparenting, parenting, family violence, and parent and child adjustment. Prevention Science, 17, 751–764. doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0674-z Google Scholar
Feinberg, M. E., & Kan, M. L. (2008). Establishing family foundations: Intervention effects on coparenting, parent/infant well-being, and parent-child relations. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 253–263. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.2.253 Google Scholar
Feinberg, M. E., Kan, M. L., & Hetherington, E. M. (2007). The longitudinal influence of coparenting conflict on parental negativity and adolescent maladjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 687–702. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00400.x Google Scholar
Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: A framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399–419. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.14435 Google Scholar
Furman, W., & Shomaker, L. B. (2008). Patterns of interaction in adolescent romantic relationships: Distinct features and links to other close relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 771–788. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.10.007 Google Scholar
George, C., & Solomon, J. (2008). The caregiving system: A behavioral systems approach to parenting. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 833–856). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Grusec, J. E., & Jenkins, J. M. (1999). Confidence in protection: Arguments for a narrow definition of attachment. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 475–483. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.13.4.475 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system: Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Kindler, H., & Zimmermann, P. (2008). A wider view of attachment and exploration: The influence of mothers and fathers on the development of psychological security from infancy to young adulthood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 857–879). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.267 Google Scholar
Holland, A. S., & McElwain, N. L. (2013). Maternal and paternal perceptions of coparenting as a link between marital quality and the parent-toddler relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 117–126. doi:10.1037/a0031427 Google Scholar
Hostinar, C. E., Johnson, A. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2015). Parent support is less effective in buffering cortisol stress reactivity for adolescents compared to children. Developmental Science, 18, 281–297. doi:10.1111/desc.12195 Google Scholar
Jaser, S. S., & Grey, M. (2010). A pilot study of observed parenting and adjustment in adolescents with type 1 diabetes and their mothers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35, 738–747. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsp098 Google Scholar
Jones, D. J., Shaffer, A., Forehand, R., Brody, G., & Armistead, L. P. (2003). Coparent conflict in single mother-headed African American families: Do parenting skills serve as a mediator or moderator of child psychosocial adjustment? Behavior Therapy, 34, 259–272. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(03)80016-3 Google Scholar
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., Farris, A. M., Smith, D. A., Richters, J. E., & Waters, E. (1991). Marital adjustment, parental disagreements about child rearing, and behavior problems in boys: Increasing the specificity of the marital assessment. Child Development, 62, 1424–1433. doi:10.2307/1130816 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1996). Spillover effects of marital conflict: In search of parenting and coparenting mechanisms. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1996, 57–76. doi:10.1002/cd.23219967406 Google Scholar
Katz, L. F., & Low, S. M. (2004). Marital violence, co-parenting, and family-level processes in relation to children's adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 372–382. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.2.372 Google Scholar
Keiley, M. K. (2002). Attachment and affect regulation: A framework for family treatment of conduct disorder. Family Process, 41, 477–493. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.41312.x Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Abraham, M. M., Schlegelmilch, A., & Morgan, T. A. (2007). Mother–child attachment in later middle childhood: Assessment approaches and associations with mood and emotion regulation. Attachment & Human Development, 9, 33–53. doi:10.1080/14616730601151441 Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Mathews, B. L., Koehn, A. J., Williams, C. T., & Siener-Ciesla, S. (2015). Assessing both safe haven and secure base support in parent–child relationships. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 337–353. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1042487 Google Scholar
Kobak, R., Cassidy, J., Lyons Ruth, K., & Ziv, Y. (2005). Attachment, stress and psychopathology: A developmental pathways model. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, J. D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 333–369). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kobak, R., Zajac, K., Herres, J., & Krauthamer Ewing, E. S. (2015). Attachment based treatments for adolescents: The secure cycle as a framework for assessment, treatment and evaluation. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 220–239. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1006388 Google Scholar
Kobak, R. R., & Kerig, P. K. (2015). Introduction to the Special Issue: Attachment-based treatments for adolescents. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 111–118. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1006382 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Blankson, A. N., & O'Brien, M. (2009). Differential effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress on social-emotional functioning. Child Development, 80, 762–775. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01296.x Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 384–389. doi:10.3758/BF03193007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G., Gordis, E. B., & John, R. S. (2001). Coparenting: A link between marital conflict and parenting in two-parent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 3–21. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.3 Google Scholar
Markiewicz, D., Lawford, H., Doyle, A. B., & Haggart, N. (2006). Developmental differences in adolescents’ and young adults’ use of mothers, fathers, best friends, and romantic partners to fulfill attachment needs. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 121–134. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-9014-5 Google Scholar
Marvin, R., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Powell, B. (2002). The circle of security project: Attachment-based intervention with caregiver-pre-school child dyads. Attachment & Human Development, 4, 107–124. doi:10.1080/14616730252982491 Google Scholar
McElhaney, K. B., Allen, J. P., Stephenson, J. C., & Hare, A. L. (2009). Attachment and autonomy during adolescence. In Lerner, R. M. & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 358–403). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
McElwain, N. L., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2006). Maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress as predictors of infant-mother attachment security. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 247–255. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.247 Google Scholar
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 986–1003. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.03.001 Google Scholar
Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (2001). The Iowa Family Interaction rating scales: Instrument summary. In Kerig, P. K. & Lindahl, K. M. (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systematic research (pp. 33–57). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Merrifield, K. A., & Gamble, W. C. (2013). Associations among marital qualities, supportive and undermining coparenting, and parenting self-efficacy: Testing spillover and stress-buffering processes. Journal of Family Issues, 34, 510–533. doi:10.1177/0192513X12445561 Google Scholar
Moreira, H., & Canavarro, M. C. (2015). Individual and gender differences in mindful parenting: The role of attachment and caregiving representations. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 13–19. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.021 Google Scholar
Moretti, M. M., & Obsuth, I. (2009). Effectiveness of an attachment-focused manualized intervention for parents of teens at risk for aggressive behavior: The Connect Program. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1347–1357. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.07.013 Google Scholar
Moretti, M. M., Obsuth, I., Craig, S. G., & Bartolo, T. (2015). An attachment-based intervention for parents of adolescents at risk: Mechanisms of change. Attachment & Human Development, 17, 119–135. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1006383 Google Scholar
Moretti, M. M., Obsuth, I., Mayseless, O., & Scharf, M. (2012). Shifting internal parent-child representations among caregivers of teens with serious behavior problems: An attachment-based approach. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 5, 191–204. doi:10.1080/19361521.2012.697104 Google Scholar
Nickerson, A. B., & Nagle, R. J. (2005). Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 223–249. doi:10.1177/0272431604274174 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Leary, S. G., & Vidair, H. B. (2005). Marital adjustment, child-rearing disagreements, and overreactive parenting: Predicting child behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 208–216. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.208 Google Scholar
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nielson, M. G., & Day, R. D. (2016). The role of parental warmth and hostility on adolescents’ prosocial behavior toward multiple targets. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 331–340. doi:10.1037/fam0000157 Google Scholar
Pedro, M. F., Ribeiro, T., & Shelton, K. H. (2012). Marital satisfaction and partners’ parenting practices: The mediating role of coparenting behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 509–522. doi:10.1037/a0029121 Google Scholar
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2013). Parent characteristics and early coparenting behavior at the transition to parenthood. Social Development, 22, 363–383. doi:10.1111/sode.12014 Google Scholar
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Settle, T., Lee, J. K., & Kamp Dush, C. M. (2016). Supportive coparenting relationships as a haven of psychological safety at the transition to parenthood. Research in Human Development, 13, 32–48. doi:10.1080/15427609.2016.1141281 Google Scholar
Slade, A., Belsky, J., Aber, J. L., & Phelps, J. L. (1999). Mothers’ representations of their relationships with their toddlers: Links to adult attachment and observed mothering. Developmental Psychology, 35, 611–619. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.611 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Somerville, L. H. (2013). The teenage brain sensitivity to social evaluation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 121–127. doi:10.1177/0963721413476512 Google Scholar
Spangler, G., & Zimmermann, P. (2014). Emotional and adrenocortical regulation in early adolescence: Prediction by attachment security and disorganization in infancy. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 142–154. doi:10.1177/0165025414520808 Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7, 349–367. doi:10.1080/14616730500365928 Google Scholar
Stroud, C. B., Meyers, K. M., Wilson, S., & Durbin, C. E. (2015). Marital quality spillover and young children's adjustment: Evidence for dyadic and triadic parenting as mechanisms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44, 800–813. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.900720 Google Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2009). The role of mothers’ and fathers’ adrenocortical reactivity in spillover between interparental conflict and parenting practices. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 215–225. doi:10.1037/a0014198 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006). Impact of hostility and withdrawal in interparental conflict on parental emotional unavailability and children's adjustment difficulties. Child Development, 77, 1623–1641. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00963.x Google Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Winter, M. A., Cummings, E. M., & Schermerhorn, A. (2008). Interparental conflict and children's school adjustment: The explanatory role of children's internal representations of interparental and parent-child relationships. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1678–1690. doi:10.1037/a0013857 Google Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Martin, M. J., & Davies, P. T. (2015). Caregiving Assessment Scale. Unpublished manuscript, University of Rochester.Google Scholar
Teubert, D., & Pinquart, M. (2010). The association between coparenting and child adjustment: A meta-analysis. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 286–307. doi:10.1080/15295192.2010.492040 Google Scholar
Zimmermann, P., Mohr, C., & Spangler, G. (2009). Genetic and attachment influences on adolescents’ regulation of autonomy and aggressiveness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1339–1347. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02158.x Google Scholar