Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-2lccl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T14:47:12.332Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Risk and protective factors for comorbid internalizing and externalizing problems among economically disadvantaged African American youth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 October 2016

Jingwen Liu ,
Brian Mustanski ,
Danielle Dick ,
John Bolland  and
Darlene A. Kertes
Jingwen Liu
Affiliation:
University of Florida
Brian Mustanski
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
Danielle Dick
Affiliation:
Virginia Commonwealth University
John Bolland
Affiliation:
University of Alabama
Darlene A. Kertes*
Affiliation:
University of Florida
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Darlene A. Kertes, Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; E-mail: dkertes@ufl.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Comorbidity of internalizing and externalizing problems and its risk and protective factors have not been well incorporated into developmental research, especially among racial minority youth from high-poverty neighborhoods. The present study identified a latent comorbid factor as well as specific factors underlying internalizing and externalizing problems among 592 African American adolescents living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods (291 male; M age = 15.9 years, SD = 1.43 years). Stressful life events and racial discrimination were associated with higher comorbid problems, whereas stressful life events and exposure to violence were associated with higher specific externalizing problems. Collective efficacy was associated with both lower specific externalizing problems and lower comorbid problems. Moreover, high collective efficacy buffered the risk effects of stressful life events and racial discrimination on comorbid problems. Our results demonstrated the advantages of latent variable modeling to understanding comorbidity by articulating impacts of risk factors on comorbid and specific components underlying internalizing and externalizing problems. They also highlighted the protective effect of collective efficacy in mitigating risks for these problems. These findings broadly call for more studies on comorbidities in developmental psychopathology among youth from diverse sociocultural backgrounds.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , August 2017 , pp. 1043 - 1056
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This project was supported by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (RO1DA025039). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funders.

References

Aber, J. L., Gephart, M. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Connell, J. P. (1997). Development in context: Implications for studying neighborhood effects. Neighborhood Poverty: Context and Consequences for Children, 1, 44–61.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Ahern, J., Cerdá, M., Lippnnan, S. A., Tardiff, K. J., Vlahov, D., & Galea, S. (2013). Navigating non-positivity in neighbourhood studies: An analysis of collective efficacy and violence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 67, 159–165. doi:10.1136/jech-2012-201317Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Anderson, E. R., & Mayes, L. C. (2010). Race/ethnicity and internalizing disorders in youth: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 338–348. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.008 Google Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87. doi:10.1017/S0021963098003448 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustments in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 391–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banks, K. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., & Spencer, M. (2006). An examination of the African American experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress. Community Mental Health Journal, 42, 555–570.Google Scholar
Beyers, J. M., & Loeber, R. (2003). Untangling developmental relations between depressed mood and delinquency in male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 247–266. doi:10.1023/A:1023225428957 Google Scholar
Bhargava, S., & Witherspoon, D. P. (2015). Parental involvement across middle and high school: Exploring contributions of individual and neighborhood characteristics. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 1702–1719. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0334-9 Google Scholar
Boyd-Franklin, N. (1989). Five key factors in the treatment of Black families. Journal of Psychotherapy and the Family, 6, 53–69. doi:10.1300/J287v06n01_04 Google Scholar
Boyle, M. H., Offord, D. R., Racine, Y., Szatmari, P., Fleming, J. E., & Sanford, M. (1996). Identifying thresholds for classifying childhood psychiatric disorder: Issues and prospects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1440–1448. doi:10.1097/00004583-199611000-00012 Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Beach, S. H., Chen, Y., Obasi, E., Philibert, R. A., Kogan, S. M., & Simons, R. L. (2011). Perceived discrimination, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region status, and the development of conduct problems. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 617–627. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000046 Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., … Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F. X., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., & Simons, R. L. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children's affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72, 1231–1246. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1132439 Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723–742.Google Scholar
Brown, D. L., & Tylka, T. L. (2011). Racial discrimination and resilience in African American young adults: Examining racial socialization as a moderator. Journal of Black Psychology, 37, 259–285. doi:10.1177/0095798410390689 Google Scholar
Browning, C. R., Gardner, M., Maimon, D., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2014). Collective efficacy and the contingent consequences of exposure to life-threatening violence. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1878–1890. doi:10.1037/a0036767 Google Scholar
Byck, G. R., Bolland, J., Dick, D., Ashbeck, A. W., & Mustanski, B. S. (2013). Prevalence of mental health disorders among low-income African American adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 1555–1567. doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0657-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byck, G. R., Bolland, J., Dick, D., Swann, G., Henry, D., & Mustanski, B. (2015). Effect of housing relocation and neighborhood environment on adolescent mental and behavioral health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12386 Google Scholar
Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 64–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, K. T. (2006). Poverty and youth violence exposure: Experiences in rural communities. Children and Schools, 28, 87–96. doi:10.1093/cs/28.2.87 Google Scholar
Caron, C., & Rutter, M. (1991). Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1063–1080. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00350.x Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Harrington, H., Israel, S., . . . Moffitt, T. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 119–137. doi:10.1177/2167702613497473 Google Scholar
Cerdá, M., Sagdeo, A., & Galea, S. (2008). Comorbid forms of psychopathology: Key patterns and future research directions. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30, 155–177. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxn003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, H. (2002). Understanding adolescent depression in ethnocultural context. Advances in Nursing Science, 25, 71–85. doi:10.1097/00012272-200212000-00006 Google Scholar
Choi, H., & Park, C. G. (2006). Understanding adolescent depression in ethnocultural context: Updated with empirical findings. Advances in Nursing Science, 29, E1–E12. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/advancesinnursingscience/toc/2006/10000 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chou, K. (2012). Perceived discrimination and depression among new migrants to Hong Kong: The moderating role of social support and neighborhood collective efficacy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 138, 63–70. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.029 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.Google Scholar
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., & Andreotti, C. (2013). Risk and resilience in child and adolescent psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 143–170). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199–206.Google Scholar
Eaton, N. R., Keyes, K. M., Krueger, R. F., Noordhof, A., Skodol, A. E., Markon, K. E., . . . Hasin, D. S. (2013). Ethnicity and psychiatric comorbidity in a national sample: Evidence for latent comorbidity factor invariance and connections with disorder prevalence. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 701–710.Google Scholar
Eaton, N. R., Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Carragher, N., & Krueger, R. F. (2015). Transdiagnostic factors of psychopathology and substance use disorders: A review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 171–182. doi:10.1007/s00127-014-1001-2 Google Scholar
Eaton, N. R., South, S. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2010). The meaning of comorbidity among common mental disorders. In Millon, T., Krueger, R., & Simonsen, E. (Eds.), Contemporary directions in psychopathology: Scientific foundations of the DSM-V and ICD-11 (2nd ed., pp. 223–241). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Evans, M. K., & Zonderman, A. B. (2014). Neighborhood racial composition, racial discrimination, and depressive symptoms in African Americans. American Journal of Community Psychology, 54, 219–228. doi:10.1007/s10464-014-9666-y Google Scholar
Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1238–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fagan, A. A., Wright, E. M., & Pinchevsky, G. M. (2014). The protective effects of neighborhood collective efficacy on adolescent substance use and violence following exposure to violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1498–1512. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-0049-8 Google Scholar
Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 227–259. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000145 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
García Coll, C., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Jenkins, R., García, H. V., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Elmore, C. A., Campbell, C. L., & Wethington, A. (2011). An examination of the tripartite model of depressive and anxiety symptoms in African American youth: Stressors and coping strategies as common and specific correlates. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 360–374.Google Scholar
Gibbons, R. D., & Hedeker, D. R. (1992). Full-information item bi-factor analysis. Psychometrika, 57, 423–436. doi:10.1007/BF02295430 Google Scholar
Gibbons, F. X., Yeh, H., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Cutrona, C., Simons, R. L., & Brody, G. H. (2007). Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88, 27–37. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep Google Scholar
Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. (1998). The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 101–116.Google Scholar
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412–425.Google Scholar
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., Gipson, P. Y., Campbell, A. J., . . . Westerholm, R. I. (2006). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Evidence of moderating and mediating effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 257–283. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.06.011 Google Scholar
Grant, K. E., McCormick, A., Poindexter, L., Simpkins, T., Janda, C. M., Thomas, K. J., … Taylor, J. (2005). Exposure to violence and parenting as mediators between poverty and psychological symptoms in urban African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 507–521.Google Scholar
Ha, C., Balderas, J. C., Zanarini, M. C., Oldham, J., & Sharp, C. (2014). Psychiatric comorbidity in hospitalized adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, e457–e464. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08696 Google Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 Google Scholar
Ingram, R. E., & Price, J. M. (2010). Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Keiley, M. K., Lofthouse, N., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). Differential risks of covarying and pure components in mother and teacher reports of externalizing and internalizing behavior across ages 5 to 14. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 267–283. doi:10.1023/A:1023277413027 Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L. A., Berglund, P., Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., Fayyad, J., . . . Zaslavsky, A. M. (2014). The effects of temporally secondary co-morbid mental disorders on the associations of DSM-IV ADHD with adverse outcomes in the US national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Psychological Medicine, 44, 1779–1792. doi:10.1017/S0033291713002419 Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., . . . Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III—R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the national comorbidity study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010008002 Google Scholar
Kilewer, W. (2013). The role of neighborhood collective efficacy and fear of crime in socialization of coping with violence in low-income communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 920–930.Google Scholar
Kim, K. J., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H. J., & Lorenz, F. O. (2003). Reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Child Development, 74, 127–143. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00525 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, H., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). The hierarchical structure of common mental disorders: Connecting multiple levels of comorbidity, bifactor models, and predictive validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 1064. doi:10.1037/abn0000113 Google Scholar
King, K. M., & Chassin, L. (2008). Adolescent stressors, psychopathology, and young adult substance dependence: A prospective study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 629–638.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K. E. (2006). Reinterpreting comorbidity: A model-based approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 111–133. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095213 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laceulle, O. M., Vollebergh, W. A. M., & Ormel, J. (2015). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence: Replication of a general psychopathology factor in the TRAILS study. Clinical Psychological Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/2167702614560750 Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., Hakes, J. K., Zald, D. H., Hariri, A. R., & Rathouz, P. J. (2012). Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 971–977. doi:10.1037/a0028355 Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., Singh, A. L., Waldman, I. D., & Rathouz, P. J. (2011). Higher-order genetic and environmental structure of prevalent forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 181–189. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.192 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, S. F., Boyd, R. C., Cammack, N. L., & Ialongo, N. S. (2012). Relationship proximity to victims of witnessed community violence: Associations with adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82, 1–9.Google Scholar
Lambert, S. F., Robinson, W. L., & Ialongo, N. S. (2014). The role of socially prescribed perfectionism in the link between perceived racial discrimination and African American adolescents' depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 577–587. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9814-0 Google Scholar
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168. doi:10.1177/00957984960222002 Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., Stevens, K. I., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2006). Developmental trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors: Factors underlying resilience in physically abused children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 35–55.Google Scholar
Lee, C. S., & Goldstein, S. E. (2016). Loneliness, stress, and social support in young adulthood: Does the source of support matter? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 568–580. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0395-9 Google Scholar
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173.Google Scholar
Liu, J., Bolland, J., Dick, D., Mustanski, B., & Kertes, D.A. (2016). Effect of environmental risk and externalizing comorbidity on internalizing problems among economically disadvantaged African American youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26, 552–566. doi:10.1111/jora.12213 Google Scholar
Mazerolle, L., Wickes, R., & McBroom, J. (2010). Community variations in violence: The role of social ties and collective efficacy in comparative context. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47, 3–30. doi:10.1177/0022427809348898 Google Scholar
Morenoff, J. D., Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2001). Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy, and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology, 39, 517–559.Google Scholar
Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2010). Prospective effects of violence exposure across multiple contexts on early adolescents internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 953–961. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02222.x Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nyborg, V. M., & Curry, J. F. (2003). The impact of perceived racism: Psychological symptoms among African American boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 258–266. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3202_11 Google Scholar
Olino, T. M., Dougherty, L. R., Bufferd, S. J., Carlson, G. A., & Klein, D. N. (2014). Testing models of psychopathology in preschool-aged children using a structured interview-based assessment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1201–1211. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9865-x Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Haworth, C. M. A., & Davis, O. S. P. (2009). Common disorders are quantitative traits. Nature Reviews Genetics, 10, 872–878. doi:10.1038/nrg2670 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Stohl, M., Hasin, D. S., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). Transdiagnostic factors and mediation of the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and mental disorders. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 706–713. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0148 Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924. doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918 Google Scholar
Sanchez, Y. M., Lambert, S. F., & Cooley-Strickland, M. (2013). Adverse life events, coping and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in urban African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 38–47.Google Scholar
Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1996). Early childhood temperament as a determinant of externalizing behavior in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 527–537. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007252 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In von Eye, A. & Clogg, C. C. (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Sentse, M., Ormel, J., Veenstra, R., Verhulst, F. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2011). Child temperament moderates the impact of parental separation on adolescent mental health: The TRAILS study. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 97–106. doi:10.1037/a0022446 Google Scholar
Sterrett, E. M., Dymnicki, A. B., Henry, D., Byck, G., Bolland, J., & Mustanski, B. (2014). Predictors of co-occurring risk behavior trajectories among economically disadvantaged African American youth: Contextual and individual factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55, 380–387. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.02.023 Google Scholar
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000042 Google Scholar
Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., Woodward, A. T., & Brown, E. (2013). Racial and ethnic differences in extended family, friendship, fictive kin, and congregational informal support networks. Family Relations, 62, 609–624. doi:10.1111/fare.12030 Google Scholar
Timmermans, M., van Lier, P. A. C., & Koot, H. M. (2010). The role of stressful events in the development of behavioural and emotional problems from early childhood to late adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1659–1668. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992091 Google Scholar
Umlauf, M., Bolland, J., & Lian, B. (2011). Sleep disturbance and risk behaviors among inner-city African-American adolescents. Journal of Urban Health, 88, 1130–1142. doi:10.1007/s11524-011-9591-4 Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2005). Diagnostic categories or dimensions? A question for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Fifth edition. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 494–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67, 272–284. doi:10.1037/a0028015 Google Scholar
Youngstrom, E. A., Findling, R. L., & Calabrese, J. R. (2003). Who are the comorbid adolescents? Agreement between psychiatric diagnosis, youth, parent, and teacher report. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 231–245. doi:10.1023/A:1023244512119 Google Scholar
Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., James, S. A., Bao, S., & Wilson, M. L. (2005). Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 660–667. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.042150 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed