Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-24hb2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T06:21:49.182Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Temperament as a moderator of the effects of parenting on children's behavior

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 August 2014

Elena Gallitto*
Affiliation:
Carleton University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Elena Gallitto, Department of Psychology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada; E-mail: e_gallitto@hotmail.com.

Abstract

This study examined the role of child temperament as moderator of the effect of parenting style on children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. A series of structural equation models were fit to a representative sample of 2,631 Canadian children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. In addition to testing for the presence of Temperament × Parenting interactions, these models also examined the direct and indirect effects of a number of additional contextual factors such as neighborhood problems, neighborhood cohesion, social support, and maternal depression. The results indicate that exposure to more positive parenting reduces behavior problems in children with difficult/unadaptable temperaments. No moderating effects of temperament on hostile parenting were found. Such results serve to highlight the pivotal role of positive features of the rearing environment as catalysts for the successful adaptation of children with difficult/unadaptable temperaments. The results of this modeling work also serve to emphasize the importance of considering the ways in which more distal factors can affect children's behavioral adaptation by contributing to changes in proximal family processes.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Revised Child Behavior Checklist and the Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1974). Infant–mother attachment and social development: Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In Richards, M. P. M. (Ed.), The integration of a child into a social world (pp. 99135). London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Allison, P. D. (2002). Missing data series: Quantitative applications in the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, G. (1961). Patterns and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 391400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E. (2000). Adjustment style in childhood as a product of parenting and temperament. In Wachs, T. D. & Kohnstamm, G. A. (Eds.), Temperament in context (pp. 173200). Mahwah, NJ: ErlbaumGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E., Bayles, K., Bennet, D. V., Ridge, B., & Brown, M. M. (1991). Origins of externalizing behavior problems at eight years of age. In Pepler, D. J. & Rubin, K. H. (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 93122). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bates, J. E., Freeland, C. A. B., & Lounsboury, M. L. (1979). Measures of infant difficultness. Child Development, 50, 794803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bayer, J. K., Hiscock, H., Obioha, C., Ukoumunne, O. C., Price, A., & Wake, M. (2008). Early childhood aetiology of mental health problems: A longitudinal population-based study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 11661174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belle, D. (1990). Poverty and women's mental health. American Psychologist, 45, 385389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1994). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 8396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1997). Variation in susceptibility to environmental influence: An evolutionary argument. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 182186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (2005). Differential susceptibility to rearing influence: An evolutionary hypothesis and some evidence. In Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. F. (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 139159). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van Ijzendoorn, M H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Hsieh, J. K., & Crnic, K. (1998). Mothering, fathering, and infant negativity as antecedents of boys' externalizing problems and inhibition at age 3 years: Differential susceptibility to rearing experience? Development and Psychopathology, 10, 301319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2010). Review article: Children's differential susceptibility to effects of parenting. Family Science, 1, 1425.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2012). Differential susceptibility to long-term effects of quality of child care on externalizing behavior in adolescence? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36, 210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fix index in structural equation models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyers, J. M., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2003). Neighborhood structure, parenting processes, and the development of youths' externalizing behaviors: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 3553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birch, S. H., & Ladd, G. W. (1998). Children's interpersonal behaviors and the teacher–child relationship. Developmental Psychology, 34, 934946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2008). Infant temperament, parenting, and externalizing behavior in first grade: A test of the differential susceptibility hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 124131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Lerner, R. M. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 9931028). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 793828). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brown, G., Bhrolchain, M., & Harris, T. (1975). Social-class and psychiatric disturbance among women in an urban population. Sociology, 9, 225254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1989). Single sample cross-validation indices for covariance structures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24, 445455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. B. (1992). Affective and cognitive processes within threat-oriented family systems. In Sigel, I. E., McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A. V., & Goodnow, J. J. (Eds.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (2nd ed., pp. 219248). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bureau, J., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2009). Maternal depressive symptoms in infancy: Unique contribution to children's depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence? Development and Psychopathology, 21, 519537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Byrne, B. (1998). Structural equation modeling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (1998). Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: Contribution to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 283300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 300314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cochran, M., & Brassard, J. (1979). Child development and personal social networks. Child Development, 50, 601616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D. A. (2006). Coping with longitudinal data in research on developmental psychopathology. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 2025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colletta, N. (1979). Support systems after divorce: Incidence and impact. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 837846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, W. A., Macobby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: The case of nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55, 218232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1999). Depressed parents and family functioning: Interpersonal effects and children's functioning and development. In Joiner, T. E. & Coyne, J. C. (Eds.), The interactional nature of depression: Advances in interpersonal approaches (pp. 299327). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. (1987). The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. In Jones, W. H. & Perlman, D. (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 1, pp. 3767). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Cutrona, C. E., & Troutman, B. R. (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model to postpartum depression. Child Development, 57, 15071518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, N. M. (2006). Depression in children and adolescents. Journal of School Nursing, 21, 311317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dix, T., & Meunier, L. N. (2009). Depressive symptoms and parenting competence: An analysis of 13 regulatory processes. Developmental Review, 29, 4568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorsey, S., & Forehand, R. (2003). The relation of social capital to child psychosocial adjustment difficulties: The role of positive parenting and neighborhood dangerousness. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 25, 1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earls, F., McGuire, J., & Shay, S. (1994). Evaluating community intervention to reduce risk of child abuse: Methodological strategies in conducting neighborhood surveys. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 473485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Guthrie, I. K., Jones, S., et al. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children's social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68, 642664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., & Lane, T. (2007). Emotional exchange in mother–child dyads: Stability, mutual influence, and associations with maternal depression and child problem behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 714725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiske, D. W. (1982). Convergent and discriminant validation in measurements and research strategies. In Brinberg, D. & Kidder, L. (Eds.), New directions for methodology of social and behavioral science: Forms of validity in research (No. 12, pp. 7792). San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Furstenberg, F. F. Jr. (1993). How families manage risk and opportunity in dangerous neighborhoods. In Wilson, W. J. (Ed.), Sociology and the public agenda (pp. 231258). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallager, K.C. (2002). Does child temperament moderate the influence of parenting on adjustment? Developmental Review, 22, 623643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geldhof, G. J., Pornprasertmanit, S., Schoemann, A. M., & Little, T. D. (2013). Orthogonalizing through residual centering: Extended applications and caveats. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73, 2746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillian, R. (1998). The importance of schools and teachers in child welfare. Child and Family Social Work, 3, 1325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilissen, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & van der Veer, R. (2008). Parent–child relationship, temperament, and physiological reactions to fear-inducing film clips: Further evidence for differential susceptibility. Journal of Child Experimental Psychology, 99, 182195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilissen, R., Koolstra, C. M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van der Veer, R. (2007). Physiological reactions of preschoolers to fear-inducing film clips: Effects of temperamental fearfulness and quality of the parent–child relationship. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 187195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerin, D. W., Gottfried, A.W., & Thomas, C.W. (1997). Difficult temperament and behavior problems: A longitudinal study from 1.5 to 12 years. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 7190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunthert, K. C., Conner, T. S., Armeli, S., Tennen, H., Covault, J., & Kranzler, H. R. (2007). Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety reactivity in daily life: A daily process approach to gene–environment interaction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 762768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasting, P. D., & Grusec, J. E. (1998). Parenting goals as organizers of responses to parent–child disengagement. Developmental Psychology, 34, 465479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, C., Bluestein, D. N., & Jenkins, J. M. (2008). Cultural differences in the relationship between parenting and children's behavior. Developmental Psychology, 44, 507522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacob, T., & Johnson, S. L. (1997). Parent–child interaction among depressed fathers and mothers: Impact on child functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 391409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jöreskog, K., & Yang, F. (1996). Nonlinear structural equation models: The Kenny–Judd model with interaction effects. In Marcoulides, G. A. & Schumacker, R. E. (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 5788). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1986). LISREL VI: Analysis of linear structural relationships by maximum likelihood, instrumental variables, and least squares methods. Uppsala: University of Uppsala, Department of Statistics.Google Scholar
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2001). LISREL 8: User's reference guide (2nd ed.). Lincolnwood, IL: SSI Scientific Software International.Google Scholar
Kagan, J. J., Reznick, S., Clarke, C., Snidman, N., & Garcia-Coll, C. (1984). Behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development, 55, 22122225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagitçibasi, C. (1996). The autonomous-relational self. European Psychologist, 1, 180186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keiley, M. K., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2002). Effects of temperament on the development of externalizing and internalizing behaviors over 9 years. In Columbus, F. (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 6, pp. 256288). Huntington, NY: Nova Science.Google Scholar
Kim, J. (2010). Neighborhood disadvantage and mental health: The role of neighborhood disorder and social relationships. Social Science and Research, 39, 260271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G. (2002). Mutually responsive orientation between mothers and their young children: A context for the early development of conscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 191195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Murray, K. T. (2000). Mother–child mutually responsive orientation and conscience development: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 71, 417431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohen, D. E., Leventhal, T., Dahinten, V. S., & McIntosh, C. N. (2008). Neighborhood disadvantage: Pathways of effects for young children. Child Development, 79, 156169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotchick, B. A., & Forehand, R. (2002). Putting parenting in perspective: A discussion of the contextual factors that shape parenting practices. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 255269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristman, V., Manno, M., & Cote, P. (2004) Loss to follow-up in cohort studies: How much is too much? European Journal of Epidemiology, 19, 751760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42, 627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leavy, R. C. (1983). Social support and psychological disorder: A review. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 321.3.0.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C. L., & Bates, J. E. (1985). Mother–child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament. Child Development, 56, 13141325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (1991). Adjustment of children of depressed mothers: A 10 month follow-up. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 473477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lemery, K. S., Essex, M. J., & Smider, N. A. (2002). Revealing the relation between temperament and behavior problem symptoms by eliminating measurement confounding: Expert ratings and factor analyses. Child Development, 73, 867882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from age 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1998). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile–aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development, 64, 572585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Cibelli, C. D. (1997). Infant attachments strategies, infant mental lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: Predictors of internalizing and externalizing problems at age 7. Developmental Psychology, 33, 681692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manassis, K., & Bradley, S. J. (1994). The development of childhood anxiety disorders: Toward an integrated model. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 345366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., & Hau, K.-T. (2004). Structural equation models of latent interactions: Evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction. Psychological Methods, 9, 275300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., & Hau, K.-T. (2006). Structural equation models of latent interactions and quadratic effects. In Hancock, G. H. & Mueller, R. O. (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 225265). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K.-T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A., & Widaman, K. F. (2007). Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual- and mean-centered approaches. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 570580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCain, M., & Mustard, F. (1999). Reversing the real brain drain: Early years study, final report. Toronto: Canadian Institute for Advanced Research.Google Scholar
McGuire, J. B. (1997). The reliability and validity of a questionnaire describing neighborhood characteristics relevant to families and young children living in urban areas. Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 551566.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, J. D., & Edwards, K. (1995). Contextual determinants of children's responses to poverty. Social Forces, 73, 14871516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesman, J., Stoel, R., Kranenburg-Bakermans, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Juffer, F., Koot, M. H., et al. (2009). Predicting growth curves of early childhood externalizing problems: Differential susceptibility of children with difficult temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 625636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michaud, S. (2001). The National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth—Overview and changes after three cycles. Canadian Studies in Population, 28, 391405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller-Lewis, L. R., Baghurst, P. A., Sawyer, M. G., Prior, M. R., Clark, J. J., Arney, F. M., et al. (2006). Early childhood externalizing behavior problems: Child, parenting, and family-related predictors over time. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 34, 891906.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis–stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 406425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moren-Cross, J. L., Wright, D. R., LaGory, M., & Lanzi, R. G. (2006). Perceived neighborhood characteristics and problem behavior among disadvantaged children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36, 273294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T. (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 395422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pachter, L. M., Auinger, P., Palmer, R., & Weitzman, M. (2006). Do parenting and the home environment, maternal depression, neighborhood, and chronic poverty affect child behavioral problems differently in different racial-ethnic groups? Pediatrics, 117, 13291338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Perkins, D. D., Hughey, J., & Speer, P. W. (2002). Community psychology perspectives on social capital theory and community development practice. Journal of the Community Development Society, 33, 3352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. E. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context, and children's adjustment: A seven-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 68, 908923.Google Scholar
Pianta, R. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., Nix, R., Foster, E. M., & Jones, D. (2001). Parenting in context: Impact of neighborhood poverty, residential stability, public services, social networks and danger on parental behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 941953.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46, 379390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2012). Vantage sensitivity: Individual differences in response to positive experiences. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 901916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powell, D. R. (1980). Personal social networks as a focus for primary prevention of child maltreatment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 1, 232239.3.0.CO;2-F>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Power, T. G., & Parke, R. D. (1984). Social network factors and transition to parenthood. Sex Roles, 10, 949972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapee, R. M., & Coplan, R. J. (2010). Conceptual relations between anxiety disorder and fearful temperament. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 127, 1731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roche, K. M., Ghazarian, S. R., Little, T. D., & Leventhal, T. (2011). Understanding links between punitive parenting and adolescent adjustment: The relevance of context and reciprocal associations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 448460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roisman, G. I., Newman, D. A., Fraley, R. C., Haltigan, J. D., Groh, A. M., & Haydon, K. C. (2012). Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis–stress: Recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 389409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, C. E. (2000). Neighborhood disadvantage and adult depression. Journal of Mental Health and Social Behavior, 41, 177187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (2001). Neighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 258276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed., pp. 105176). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rottenberg, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2004). Socioemotional functioning in depression. In Power, M. (Ed.), Mood disorders: A handbook of science and practice (pp. 6177). Hoboken, NJ; Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M., Giller, H., & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior by young people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Developmental system and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 297312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13, 142170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saris, W. E., Batista-Foguet, J. M., & Coenders, G. (2007). Selection of indicators for the interaction term in structural equation models with interaction. Quality & Quantity, 41, 5572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In von Eye, A. & Clogg, C. C. (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications to developmental research (pp. 399419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Savalei, V. (2010). Small sample statistics for incomplete nonnormal data: Extensions of complete data formulae and a Monte Carlo comparison. Structural Equation Modeling, 17, 241264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schafer, J. L. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. Monographs on statistics and applied probability. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Owens, E. B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, E. B. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 3643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Statistics Canada. (1996). National longitudinal survey of children and youth: User's handbook and micro data guide. Ottawa, ON: Author.Google Scholar
Steiger, J. H., & Lind, J. C. (1980). Statistically based tests for numbers of common factors. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society, Iowa City, IA.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A., Maughan, B., & Goodman, R. (2010). What's in a disruptive disorder? Temperamental antecedents of oppositional defiant disorder: Findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 474483.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A., Flood, M. F., & Goodwin, R. (2006). Social support and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 137). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
van Zeijl, J., Mesman, J., Stolk, M. N., Alink, L. R. A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., et al. (2007). Differential susceptibility to discipline: The moderating effect of child temperament on the association between maternal discipline and early childhood externalizing problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 626636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Hippel, P. T. (2009). How to impute interactions and squares and other transformed variables. Sociological Methodology, 39, 265291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, E. F., & Diforio, D. (1997). Schizophrenia: A neural diathesis–stress model. Psychological Review, 104, 667685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weatherston, D., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (2010). Role of parenting in the development of the infant's interpersonal abilities. In Tyano, S., Keren, M., Herrman, H., & Cox, J. (Eds.), Parenthood and mental health: A bridge between infant and adult psychiatry (pp. 181194). Chichester: Wiley–Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P., Moreau, D., & Olfson, M. (1997). Offspring of depressed parents: 10 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 932940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. (2006). Offspring of depressed parents: 20 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 10011008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xue, Y., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Earls, J. F. (2005). Neighborhood residence and mental health problems of 5- to 11-year-olds. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 554563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, Q., Wang, Y., Deng, X., Eisenberg, N., Wolchik, S. A., & Tein, J.-T. (2008). Relations of parenting and temperament to Chinese children's experience of negative life events, coping efficacy, and externalizing problems. Child Development, 79, 493513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology: A biosocial model. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar