Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-wq2xx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T20:49:16.080Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reconceptualizing antisocial deviance in neurobehavioral terms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2012

Christopher J. Patrick ,
C. Emily Durbin  and
Jason S. Moser
Christopher J. Patrick*
Affiliation:
Florida State University
C. Emily Durbin
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Jason S. Moser
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Christopher J. Patrick, Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 West Call Street, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301; E-mail: cpatrick@psy.fsu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We propose that neuroscientific understanding of antisocial behavior can be advanced by focusing programmatic efforts on neurobehavioral trait constructs, that is, individual difference constructs with direct referents in neurobiology as well as behavior. As specific examples, we highlight inhibitory control and defensive reactivity as two such constructs with clear relevance for understanding antisocial behavior in the context of development. Variations in inhibitory control are theorized to reflect individual differences in the functioning of brain systems that operate to guide and inhibit behavior and regulate emotional response in the service of nonimmediate goals. Variations in defensive reactivity are posited to reflect individual differences in the sensitivity of the brain's aversive motivational (fear) system. We describe how these constructs have been conceptualized in the adult and child literatures and review work pertaining to traditional psychometric (rating and behaviorally based) assessment of these constructs and their known physiological correlates at differing ages as well as evidence linking these constructs to antisocial behavior problems in children and adults. We outline a psychoneurometric approach, which entails systematic development of neurobiological measures of target trait constructs through reference to psychological phenotypes, as a paradigm for linking clinical disorders to neurobiological systems. We provide a concrete illustration of this approach in the domain of externalizing proneness and discuss its broader implications for research on conduct disorder, antisocial personality, and psychopathy.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 3: Multilevel Approaches Toward Understanding Antisocial Behavior: Current Research and Future Directions , August 2012 , pp. 1047 - 1071
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1275–1301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Hamann, S., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., Phelps, E. A., et al. (1999). Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with. bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1111–1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agam, Y., Hämäläinen, M. S., Leeb, A. K. C., Dyckman, K. A., Friedman, J. S., Isom, M., et al. (2011). Multimodal neuroimaging dissociates hemodynamic and electrophysiological correlates of error processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 17556–17561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albrecht, B., Brandeis, D., Uebel, H., Heinrich, H., Mueller, U. C., Hasselhorn, M., et al. (2008). Action monitoring in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, their nonaffected siblings, and normal control subjects: Evidence for an endophenotype. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 615–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2011). DSM-V development. Retrieved from http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/DSMVOverview.AspxGoogle Scholar
Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C. T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J., & Burns, M. (2009). Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 961–973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arrindell, W. A., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & van der Ende, J. (1984). Phobic dimensions: I. Reliability and generalizability across samples, gender, and nations. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy, 6, 207–254.Google Scholar
Asendorpf, J. B. (1993). Abnormal shyness in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1069–1081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balaban, M. T., & Berg, W. K. (2007). Measuring the electromyographic response: Developmental issues and findings. In McMaster, L. A. S. & Brock, S. J. S. (Eds.), Developmental psychophysiology theory, systems and methods (pp. 257–285). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unified theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Curtin, J. J., & Newman, J. P. (2011). Specifying the attentional selection that moderates the fearlessness of psychopathic offenders. Psychological Science, 22, 226–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, L. O., & Hesselbrock, V. M. (1999). P300 decrements in teenagers with conduct problems: Implications for substance abuse risk and brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 263–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293–1295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Begleiter, H., Porjesz, B., Bihari, B., & Kissin, B. (1984). Event-related brain potentials in boys at risk for alcoholism. Science, 225, 1493–1496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Blonigen, D. M., & Krueger, R. F. (2003). Factor structure of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Validity and implications for clinical assessment. Psychological Assessment, 15, 340–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Psychopathy, startle blink modulation, and electrodermal reactivity in twin men. Psychophysiology, 42, 753–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berman, M. S., Whipple, S. C., Fitch, R. J., & Noble, E. P. (1993). P3 in young boys as a predictor of adolescents’ substance abuse. Alcohol, 10, 69–76.Google Scholar
Birbaumer, N., Veit, R., Lotze, M., Erb, M., Hermann, C., Grodd, W., et al. (2005). Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 799–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bishop, S. J., Duncan, J., & Lawrence, A. D. (2004). State anxiety modulation of the amygdala response to unattended threat-related stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 10364–10368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R. (2006). Subcortical brain systems in psychopathy: The amygdala and associated structures. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 296–312). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Block, J., & Block, J. H. (1980). The role of ego-resiliency and ego-control in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Blumer, D., & Benson, D. F. (1975). Personality changes with frontal and temporal lobe lesions. In Benson, D. F. & Blumer, D. (Eds.), Psychiatric aspects of neurological disease (pp. 151–169). New York: Grune & Stratton.Google Scholar
Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing. Emotion, 1, 276–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brigham, J., Herning, R. I., & Moss, H. B. (1995). Event-related potentials and alpha synchronization in preadolescent boys at risk for psychoactive substance use. Biological Psychiatry, 37, 834–846.Google Scholar
Brooker, R. J., Buss, K. A., & Dennis, T. A. (2011). Error-monitoring brain activity is associated with affective behaviors in young children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 141–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J. W., & Braver, T. S. (2005). Learned predictions of error likelihood in the anterior cingulate cortex. Science, 307, 1118–1121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1992). Social psychological contributions to decade of the brain: Doctrine of multi-level analysis. American Psychologist, 47, 1019–1028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait–multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.Google Scholar
Carter, C. S., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Botvinick, M. M., Noll, D. N., & Cohen, J. D. (1998). Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection, and the online monitoring of performance. Science, 280, 747–749.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleckley, H. (1976). The mask of sanity (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: CV Mosby.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573–588.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. D., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, cortex, and dopamine: A connectionist approach to behavior and biology in schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99, 45–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coles, M. G. H., & Rugg, M. D. (1995). Event-related potentials: An introduction. In Rugg, M. D. & Coles, M. G. H. (Eds.), Electrophysiology of mind: Event-related potentials and cognition (pp. 1–26). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cote, S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Zoccolillo, M., & Vitaro, F. (2002). Childhood behavioral profiles leading to adolescent conduct disorder: Risk trajectories for boys and girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1086–1094.Google Scholar
Curtin, J. J., Patrick, C. J., Lang, A. R., Cacioppo, J. T., & Birbaumer, N. (2001). Alcohol affects emotion through cognition. Psychological Science, 12, 527–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., Perry, Y., Hawes, D. J., Merz, S., Riddell, A. C., Haines, D. J., et al. (2006). Attention to the eyes reverses fear-recognition deficits in child psychopathy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 280–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli. Behavioral Brain Research, 41, 81–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—A possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M. (1992). The role of the amygdala in conditioned fear. In Aggleton, J. (Ed.), The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory and mental dysfunction (pp. 255–305). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Davis, M. (1989). Neural systems involved in fear-potentiated startle. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 563, 165–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Falls, W. A., Campeau, S., & Kim, M. (1993). Fear-potentiated startle: A neural and pharmacological analysis. Behavioral and Brain Research, 58, 175–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Walker, D. L., & Lee, Y. (1997). Roles of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in fear and anxiety measured with the acoustic startle reflex. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 831, 305–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degnan, K. A., Hane, A. A., Henderson, H. A., Moas, O. L., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Longitudinal stability of temperamental exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 47, 765–780.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Depue, R. A., & Iacono, W. G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 457–492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A., & Taylor, C. (1996). Development of an aspect of effortful control: Development of the abilities to remember what I said and to “Do as I say, not as I do.” Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 315–334.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dias, R., Robbins, T. W., & Roberts, A. C. (1996). Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts. Nature, 380, 69–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dikman, Z. V., & Allen, J. J. (2000). Error monitoring during reward and avoidance learning in high- and low-socialized individuals. Psychophysiology, 37, 43–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dindo, L. A., & Fowles, D. C. (2011). Dual temperament risk factors for psychopathic personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 557–566.Google Scholar
Ding, L., Wilke, C., Xu, B., Xu, X., van Drongelen, W., Kohrman, M., et al. (2007). EEG source imaging: Correlating source locations and extents with electrocorticography and surgical resections in epilepsy patients. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 24, 130–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dougherty, L. R., Bufferd, S. J., Carlson, G. A., Dyson, M., Olino, T. M., Durbin, C. E., et al. (2011). Preschoolers’ observed temperament and DSM-IV psychiatric disorders assessed with a parent diagnostic interview. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 295–306.Google Scholar
Drislane, L. E., Lucy, M. D., Yancey, J. R., Vaidyanathan, U., & Patrick, C. J. (2012). Heritability of probe P3 amplitude and affect modulation in a community twin sample. Psychophysiology, 48, S99.Google Scholar
Drislane, L. E., Vaidyanathan, U., & Patrick, C. J. (2012). Reduced cortical call to arms differentiates psychopathy from antisocial personality disorder. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E. (2010). Modeling temperamental risk for internalizing psychopathology using developmentally sensitive laboratory paradigms. Child Development Perspectives, 4, 168–173.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., & Olino, T. M. (2007). Stability of laboratory-assessed temperamental emotionality traits from ages 3 to 7. Emotion, 7, 388–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Durbin, C. E., Klein, D. N., Hayden, E. P., Buckley, M. E., & Moerk, K. C. (2005). Temperamental emotionality in preschoolers and parental mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 28–37.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., Mendelsohn, K. A., & Wilson, S. (2012). Associations between laboratory measures of child fear and effortful control and risk indices. Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., & Wilson, S. (in press). Convergent validity of and bias in parent reports of child emotion. Psychological Assessment.Google Scholar
Dyson, M. W., Olino, T. M., Durbin, C. E., Goldsmith, H. H., & Klein, D. N. (in press). The structure of temperament in preschoolers: A two-stage factor analytic approach. Emotion.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Maszk, P., Holmgren, R., et al. (1996). The relations of regulation and emotionality to problem behavior in elementary school children. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 141–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Gershoff, E. T., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A. J., Losoya, S. H., et al. (2001). Mothers’ emotional expressivity and children's behavior problems and social competence: Mediation through children's regulation. Developmental Psychology, 37, 475–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Spinrad, T. L., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., et al. (2009). Longitudinal relationships of children's effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 45, 988–1008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engels, A. S., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Herrington, J. D., Banich, M. T., Webb, A. G., et al. (2007). Specificity of regional brain activity in anxiety types during emotion processing. Psychophysiology, 44, 352–363.Google Scholar
Eriksen, B. A., & Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Perception & Psychophysics, 16, 143–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eysenck, M. W., & Derakshan, N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 955–960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 1, 429–438.Google Scholar
First, M., Spitzer, R., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. (1997). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (SCID-II). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Flor, H., Birbaumer, N., Hermann, C., Ziegler, S., & Patrick, C. J. (2002). Aversive Pavlovian conditioning in psychopaths: Peripheral and central correlates. Psychophysiology, 39, 505–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D. C., & Dindo, L. A (2006). Dual-deficit model of psychopathy. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 14–34). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fowles, D. C., & Dindo, L. (2009). Temperament and psychopathy: A dual-pathway model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 179–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowles, D. C., Kochanska, G., & Murray, K. (2000). Electrodermal activity and temperament in preschool children. Psychophysiology, 37, 777–787.Google Scholar
Fox, N. A. (1991). If it's not left, it's right: Electroencaphalogram asymmetry and the development of emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 863–872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A. (1994). Dynamic cerebral processes underlying emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 152–166.Google Scholar
Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., Marshall, T. R., Coplan, R. J., Porges, S. W., et al. (1995). Frontal activation asymmetry and social competence at four years of age. Child Development, 66, 1770–1784.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Marsee, S. F. (2006). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 353–374). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). The importance of callous–unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.Google Scholar
Gehring, W. J., Coles, M. G. H., Meyer, D. E., & Donchin, E. (1995). A brain potential manifestation of error-related processing. In Karmos, G., Molnar, M., Csepe, V., Czigler, I., & Desmedt, J. E. (Eds.), Perspectives of event-related potentials research (pp. 267–272). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Gehring, W. J., & Willoughby, A. R. (2002). The medial frontal cortex and the rapid processing of monetary gains and losses. Science, 295, 2279–2282.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, K. A., & Lemery, K. S. (1997). Toddler and childhood temperament: Expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of the environment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 891–905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., & Campos, J. J. (1982). Toward a theory of infant temperament. In Emde, R. N. & Harmon, R. J. (Eds.), The development of attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 161–193). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., & Campos, J. J. (1990). The structure of temperamental fear and pleasure in infants: A psychometric perspective. Child Development, 61, 1944–1964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Lemery, K. S., Buss, K. A., & Campos, J. J. (1999). Genetic analyses of focal aspects of infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 35, 972–985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Reilly, J., Lemery, K. S., Longley, S., & Prescott, A. (1995). Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery: Preschool version. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Gordon, H. L., Baird, A. A., & End, A. (2004). Functional differences among those high and low on a trait measure of psychopathy. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 516–521.Google Scholar
Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review, 87, 301–315.Google Scholar
Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gough, H. G. (1960). Theory and measurement of socialization. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 23–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, T. D., & Gottesman, I. I. (2003). Psychiatric phenotypes and the development of valid animal models. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 5, 113–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, F. K. (1979). Distinguishing among orienting, defense, and startle reflexes. In Kimmel, H. D., van Olst, E. H., & Orlebeke, J. F. (Eds.), The orienting reflex in humans (pp. 137–167). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1975). The psychology of fear and stress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems, emotion and personality. In Madden, J. (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion and affect (pp. 273–306). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Grillon, C., Dierker, L., & Merikangas, K. R. (1997). Startle modulation in children at risk for anxiety disorders and/or alcoholism. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 925–932.Google Scholar
Grillon, C., Dierker, L., & Merikangas, K. R. (1998). Fear-potentiated startle in adolescent offspring of parents with anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 990–997.Google Scholar
Grillon, C., Merikangas, K. R., Dierker, L., Snidman, N., Arriaga, R. I., Kagan, J., et al. (1999). Startle potentiation by threat of aversive stimuli and darkness in adolescents: A multi-site study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 32, 63–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hajcak, G., Franklin, M. E., Foa, E. B., & Simons, R. F. (2008). Increased error-related brain activity in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder before and after treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 116–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J. R., Bernat, E. M., & Patrick, C. J. (2007). Externalizing psychopathology and the error-related negativity. Psychological Science, 18, 326–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamm, A. O., Cuthbert, B. N., Globisch, J., & Vaitl, D. (1997). Fear and the startle reflex: Blink modulation and autonomic response patterns in animal and mutilation fearful subjects. Psychophysiology, 34, 97–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, R.D. (1978). Electrodermal and cardiovascular correlates of psychopathy. In Hare, R. D. & Schalling, D. (Eds.), Psychopathic behavior: Approaches to research (pp. 107–143). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D., Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., Forth, A. E., Hart, S. D., & Newman, J. P. (1990). The Revised Psychopathy Checklist: Reliability and factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 2, 338–341.Google Scholar
Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., Goldman, D., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science, 297, 400–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., & Hare, R. D. (1988). Factor structure of the Psychopathy Checklist. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 741–747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpur, T. J., Hare, R. D., & Hakstian, A. R. (1989). Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications. Psychological Assessment, 1, 6–17.Google Scholar
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., & Durbin, C. E. (2005). Parent reports and laboratory assessments of child temperament: A comparison of their associations with risk for depression and externalizing disorders. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 27, 89–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., & Olino, T. M. (2006). Positive emotionality at age 3 predicts cognitive styles in 7-year-old children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 409–423.Google Scholar
Heller, W., & Nitschke, J. (1998). The puzzle of regional brain activity in anxiety and depression: The importance of subtypes and comorbidity. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 421–447.Google Scholar
Herbert, C., Kissler, J., Junghoefer, M., Peyk, P., & Rockstroh, B. (2006). Processing of emotional adjectives: Evidence from startle EMG and ERPs. Psychophysiology, 43, 197–206.Google Scholar
Hettema, J. M., Anna, P., Neale, M., Kendler, K. A., & Fredrikson, M. (2003). A twin study of the genetics of fear conditioning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 702–708.Google Scholar
Hicks, B. M., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., Krueger, R. F., & Newman, J. P. (2004). Identifying psychopathy subtypes based on personality structure. Psychological Assessment, 16, 276–288.Google Scholar
Hicks, B. M., Bernat, E. M., Malone, S. M., Iacono, W. G., Patrick, C. J., & Krueger, R. F., et al. (2007). Genes mediate the association between P3 amplitude and externalizing disorders. Psychophysiology, 44, 98–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, S. Y., & Shen, S. (2002). Neurodevelopmental patterns of visual P3b in association with familial risk for alcohol dependence and childhood diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 621–631.Google Scholar
Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S. C., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005). Assessment of hot and cool executive function in young children: Age-related changes and individual differences. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 617–644.Google Scholar
Hyman, S. M. (2007). Can neuroscience be integrated into the DSM-V? Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 8, 725–732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iacono, W. G. (1991). Psychophysiological assessment of psychopathology. Psychological Assessment, 3, 309–320.Google Scholar
Iacono, W. G., Carlson, S. R., Malone, S. M., & McGue, M. (2002). P3 event-related potential amplitude and risk for disinhibitory disorders in adolescent boys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 750–757.Google Scholar
Iacono, W. G., Carlson, S. R., Taylor, J., Elkins, I. J., & McGue, M. (1999). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota Twin Family Study. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 869–900.Google Scholar
Iacono, W. G., Malone, S. M., & McGue, M. (2008). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of early-onset addiction: Common and specific influences. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 325–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, T. R., & Scolnick, E. M. (2006). Cure therapeutics and strategic prevention: Raising the bar for mental health research. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 11–17.Google Scholar
James, W. (1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)Google Scholar
Jones, A. P., Laurens, K. R., Herba, C. M., Barker, G. J., & Viding, E. (2009). Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous–unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 95–102.Google Scholar
Jonkman, L. M., Kemner, C., Verbaten, M. N., Koelega, H. S., Camfferman, G., van der Gaag, R. J., et al. (1997). Event-related potentials and performance of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Children and normal controls in auditory and visual selective attention tasks. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 595–611.Google Scholar
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1999). Early childhood predictors of adult anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1536–1541.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J., & Neale, M. C. (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 929–937.Google Scholar
Kiehl, K. A., Laurens, K. R., Duty, T. L., Forster, B. B., & Liddle, P. F. (2001). Neural sources involved in auditory target detection and novelty processing: An event-related fMRI study. Psychophysiology, 38, 133–142.Google ScholarPubMed
Killgore, W. D. S., & Yurgelum-Todd, D. A. (2005). Social anxiety predicts amygdala activation in adolescents viewing fearful faces. NeuroReport, 16, 1671–1675.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325–347.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Gross, J. N., Lin, M.-H., & Nichols, K. E. (2002). Guilt in young children: Development, determinants, and relations with a broader system of standards. Child Development, 73, 461–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Coy, K. C. (1997). Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 68, 263–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G. K. (1997). Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: From toddlerhood to age 5. Developmental Psychology, 33, 228–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, M. D. (2010). Delineating defensive reactivity in the domain of self-report: Phenotypic and etiologic structure of fear and development of the Trait Fear Inventory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Kramer, M. D., Patrick, C. J., Krueger, R. F., & Gasperi, M. (2012). Delineating physiologic defensive reactivity in the domain of self-report: Phenotypic and etiologic structure of dispositional fear. Psychological Medicine, 42, 1305–1320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F. (1999). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 921–926.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1998). The structure and stability of common mental disorders (DSM-III-R): A longitudinal–epidemiological study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 216–227.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., Benning, S. D., & Kramer, M. D. (2007). Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: An integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 645–666.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, C. D., Dahl, R. E., Birmaher, B., Axelson, D. A., & Ryan, N. D. (2006). Increased error-related negativity (ERN) in childhood anxiety disorders: ERP and source localization. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1073–1082.Google Scholar
Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50, 372–385.Google Scholar
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377–395.Google Scholar
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1997). Motivated attention: Affect, activation, and action. In Lang, P. J., Simons, R. F., & Balaban, M. T. (Eds.), Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes (pp. 97–135). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Laptook, R. S., Klein, D. N., Durbin, C. E., Hayden, E. P., Olino, T. M., & Carlson, G. (2008). Differentiation between low positive affectivity and behavioral inhibition in preschool-age children: A comparison of behavioral approach in novel and non-novel contexts. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 425–428.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (1995). Emotion: Clues from the brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 209–235.Google Scholar
Lemery, K. S., Essex, M. J., & Snider, N. A. (2002). Revealing the relation between temperament and behavior problems symptoms by eliminating measurement confounding: Expert ratings and factor analyses. Child Development, 73, 867–882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levenston, G. K., Patrick, C. J., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2000). The psychopath as observer: Emotion and attention in picture processing. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 373–385.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Andrews, B. P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal populations. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66, 488–524.Google Scholar
Lykken, D. T. (1957). A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, 55, 6–10.Google Scholar
Lykken, D. T. (1995). The antisocial personalities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., & Derefinko, K. J. (2006). Psychopathy and personality. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 133–155). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Mars, R. B., Coles, M. G., Grol, M. J., Holroyd, C. B., Nieuwenhuis, S., Hulstijn, W., et al. (2005). Neural dynamics of error processing in medial frontal cortex. NeuroImage, 28, 1007–1013.Google Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, G. V., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous–unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712–720.Google Scholar
Martel, M. M., & Nigg, J. T. (2006). Child ADHD and personality/temperament traits of reactive and effortful control, resiliency, and emotionality. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1175–1183.Google Scholar
McManis, M. H., Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (1995). Kids have feelings too: Children's physiological responses to affective pictures. Psychophysiology, 33, S53.Google Scholar
Miller, E. K. (1999). The prefrontal cortex: Complex neural properties for complex behavior. Neuron, 22, 15–17.Google Scholar
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24(24), 167–202.Google Scholar
Miltner, W. H. R., Braun, C. H., & Coles, M. G. H. (1997). Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: Evidence for a “generic” neural system for error detection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 788–798.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.Google Scholar
Molto, J., Poy, R., Segarra, P., Pastor, M. C., & Montanes, S. (2007) Response perseveration in psychopaths: Interpersonal/affective or social deviance traits? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 632–637.Google Scholar
Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 113–136.Google Scholar
Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., et al. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383, 812–815.Google Scholar
Moser, J. S., Moran, T. P., & Jendrusina, A. (2012). Parsing relationships between dimensions of anxiety and action monitoring brain potentials in female undergraduates. Psychophysiology, 49, 3–10.Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514.Google Scholar
Nelson, L. D., Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. M. (2011). Operationalizing proneness to externalizing psychopathology as a multivariate psychophysiological phenotype. Psychophysiology, 48, 64–72.Google Scholar
Newman, J. P., Schmitt, W. A., & Voss, W. (1997). The impact of motivationally neutral cues on psychopathic individuals: Assessing the generality of the response modulation hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 563–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T. (2003). Response inhibition and disruptive behaviors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 170–182.Google Scholar
Nye, F. I., & Short, J. F. Jr. (1957). Scaling delinquent behavior. American Sociological Review, 22, 326–331.Google Scholar
Olino, T. M., Klein, D. N., Dyson, M. W., Rose, S. A., & Durbin, C. E. (2010). Parental depressive disorders and temperamental emotionality in preschool-aged offspring: Evidence for interactions between temperament dimensions. Journal of Abnormal Psychollogy, 119, 468–478.Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Kerr, D. C., Lopez, N. L., & Wellman, H. M. (2005). Developmental foundations of externalizing problems in young children: The role of effortful control. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 25–45.Google Scholar
Ormel, J., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ferdinand, R. F., Hartman, C. A., DeWinter, A. F., Veenstra, R., et al. (2005). Internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence: General and dimension-specific effects of familial loadings and preadolescent temperament traits. Psychological Medicine, 35, 1825–1835.Google Scholar
Pailing, P. E., & Segalowitz, S. J. (2004). The error-related negativity as a state and trait measure: Motivation, personality, and ERPs in response to errors. Psychophysiology, 41, 84–95.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J. (1994). Emotion and psychopathy: Startling new insights. Psychophysiology, 31, 319–330.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J. (2007). Getting to the heart of psychopathy. In Herve, H. & Yuille, J. C. (Eds.), Psychopathy: Theory, research, and social implications (pp. 207–252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. M. (2006). The construct of emotion as a bridge between personality and psychopathology. In Krueger, R. F. & Tackett, J. (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology (pp. 174–209). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. M. (2009). Neurobiology of psychopathy: A two-process theory. In Berntson, G. G. & Cacioppo, J. T. (Eds.), Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences (pp. 1110–1131). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Bernat, E., Malone, S. M., Iacono, W. G., Krueger, R. F., & McGue, M. K. (2006). P300 amplitude as an indicator of externalizing in adolescent males. Psychophysiology, 43, 84–92.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1993). Emotion in the criminal psychopath: Startle reflex modulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 82–92.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Fowles, D. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2009). Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: Developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 913–938.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., & Lang, A. R. (2005). Relations between psychopathy facets and externalizing in a criminal offender sample. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 339–356.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Kramer, M. D., Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K.E. (2012). Optimizing efficiency of psychopathology assessment through quantitative modeling: Development of a brief form of the Externalizing Spectrum Inventory. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Lang, A. R. (1999). Psychopathic traits and intoxicated states: Affective concomitants and conceptual links. In Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Bohmelt, A. H (Eds.) Startle modification: Implications for neuroscience, cognitive science, and clinical science (pp. 209–230). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, C. J., & Nelson, L. D. (in press). Antisocial personality disorder: Conceptualization and treatment. In Smits, J. (Ed.), Cognitive behavioral therapy: A complete reference guide: Vol. 2. CBT for specific disorders. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley–Blackwell.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. M., & Newman, J. P. (1993). Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: Toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. Psychological Review, 100, 716–736.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Peterson, J. B., & Pihl, R. O. (1990). Information processing, neuropsychological function, and the inherited predisposition to alcoholism. Neuropsychology Review, 1, 343–369.Google Scholar
Petrides, M. (2000). Dissociable roles of mid-dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior inferotemporal cortex in visual working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 7496–7503.Google Scholar
Pfeifer, M., Goldsmith, H. H., Davidson, R. J., & Rickman, M. (2002). Continuity and change in inhibited and uninhibited children. Child Development, 73, 1474–1485.Google Scholar
Quevedo, K., Smith, T., Donzella, B., Schunk, E., & Gunnar, M. (2010). The startle response: Developmental effects and a paradigm for children and adults. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 78–89.Google Scholar
Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311–326.Google Scholar
Richters, J. E. (1992). Depressed mothers as informants about their children: A critical review of the evidence for distortion. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 485–499.Google Scholar
Rolls, E. T. (2000). The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 284–294.Google Scholar
Rosen, J. B., & Schulkin, J. (1998). From normal fear to pathological anxiety. Psychological Review, 105, 325–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52, 569–578.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Ahadi, S. A. (1994). Temperament and the development of personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 55–66.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Development of individual differences in temperament. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Sheese, B. E. (2006). Temperament and emotion regulation. In Gross, J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 331–350). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Sheese, B. E., & Posner, M. I. (2007). Executive attention and effortful control: Linking temperament, brain networks, and genes. Child Development Perspectives, 1, 2–7.Google Scholar
Rueda, M. R., Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., & Davis-Stober, C. P. (2004). Development of the time course for processing conflict: An event-related potentials study with 4 year olds and adults. BMC Neuroscience, 5, 39.Google Scholar
Sabatinelli, D., Bradley, M. M., Fitzsimmons, J. R., & Lang, P. J. (2005). Parallel amygdala and inferotemporal activation reflect emotional intensity and fear relevance. NeuroImage, 24, 1265–1270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanislow, C. S., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K. J., Kozak, M. J., Garvey, M. A., Heinssen, R. K., et al. (2010). Developing constructs for psychopathology research: Research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 631–639.Google Scholar
Scheffers, M., Coles, M. G. H., Bernstein, P., Gehring, W. J., & Donchin, E. (1996). Event-related potentials and error-related processing: An analysis of incorrect responses to go and no-go stimuli. Psychophysiology, 33, 42–53.Google Scholar
Schupp, H. T., Cuthbert, B. N., Bradley, M. M., Birbaumer, N., & Lang, P. J. (1997). Probe P3 and blinks: Two measures of affective startle modulation. Psychophysiology, 34, 1–6.Google Scholar
Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1996). Early childhood temperament as a determinant of externalizing behavior in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 527–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, C. E., Wright, C. I., Shin, L. M., Kagan, J., & Rauch, S. L. (2003). Inhibited and uninhibited infants grown up: Adult amygdalar response to novelty. Science, 300, 1952–1953.Google Scholar
Sellbom, M., Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Bagby, R. M. (2008). On the hierarchical structure of mood and anxiety disorders: Confirmatory evidence and an elaborated model of temperament markers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 576–590.Google Scholar
Shankman, S. A., Klein, D. N., Torpey, D. C., Olino, T. M., Dyson, M. W., Kim, J., et al. (2011). Do positive and negative temperament traits interact in predicting risk for depression? A resting EEG study of 329 preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 551–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sher, K. J., & Trull, T. J. (1994). Personality and disinhibitory psychopathology: Alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 92–102.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L. (1998). How shall we speak of children's personality in middle childhood? A preliminary taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 308–332.Google Scholar
Siegle, G. J., Ghinassi, F., & Thase, M. E. (2007). Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: Summary of an emerging field and an extended example of cognitive control training for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 235–262.Google Scholar
Skeem, J. L., Johansson, P., Andershed, H., Kerr, M., & Eno Louden, J. (2007). Two subtypes of psychopathic violent offenders that parallel primary and secondary variants. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 395–409.Google Scholar
Skeem, J. L., Polaschek, D., Patrick, C. J., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2011). Psychopathic personality: Bridging the gap between empirical evidence and public policy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12, 95–162.Google Scholar
Skinner, A. (1982). The Drug Abuse Screening Test. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 363–371.Google Scholar
Skinner, H. A., & Allen, B. A. (1982). Alcohol dependence syndrome: Measurement and validation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 199–209.Google Scholar
Smith, C. L., & Bell, M. A. (2010). Stability in infant frontal asymmetry as a predictor of toddlerhood internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 158–167.Google Scholar
Stifter, C.A., Putnam, S., & Jahromi, L. (2008). Exuberant and inhibited toddlers: Stability of temperament and risk for problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 401–421.Google Scholar
Sutton, S. K., Vitale, J. E., & Newman, J. P. (2002). Emotion among females with psychopathy during picture perception. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 610–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sylvers, P., Lilienfeld, S., & LaPrairie, J. (2011). Differences between trait fear and trait anxiety: Implications for psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 122–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tamm, L., Hughes, C., Ames, L., Pickering, J., Silver, C. H., Stavinoha, P., et al. (2010). Attention training for school-aged children with ADHD: Results from an open trial. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14, 86–94.Google Scholar
Tarter, R. E., Alterman, A. I., & Edwards, K. L. (1985). Vulnerability to alcoholism in men: A behavior–genetic perspective. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46, 329–356.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A. (1982). Brief manual for the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A. (1985). Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report. In Tuma, A. H. & Maser, J. D. (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 681–706). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A., & Waller, N. G. (2008). Exploring personality through test construction: Development of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. In Boyle, G. J., Matthews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and testing: Personality measurement and assessment (Vol. 2, pp. 261–292). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Theall-Honey, L. A., & Schmidt, L. A. (2006). Do temperamentally shy children process emotion differently than nonshy children? Behavioral, psychophysiological, and gender differences in reticent preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 187–196.Google Scholar
Vaidyanathan, U., Hall, J. R., Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. M. (2011). Clarifying the role of defensive reactivity deficits in psychopathy and antisocial personality using startle reflex methodology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 12, 253–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaidyanathan, U., Nelson, L. D., & Patrick, C. J. (2011). Clarifying domains of internalizing psychopathology using neurophysiology. Psychological Medicine, 42, 447–459.Google Scholar
Vaidyanathan, U., Patrick, C. J., & Bernat, E. M. (2009). Startle reflex potentiation during aversive picture viewing as an index of trait fear. Psychophysiology, 46, 75–85.Google Scholar
Vaidyanathan, U., Patrick, C. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2009). Linking dimensional models of internalizing psychopathology to neurobiological systems: Affect-modulated startle as an indicator of fear and distress disorders and affiliated traits. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 909–942.Google Scholar
Vaidyanathan, U., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2011). Patterns of comordibity among common mental disorders: A person-centered approach. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 527–535.Google Scholar
Valiente, C., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A., & Losoya, S. H. (2004). Prediction of children's empathy-related responding from their effortful control and parents’ expressivity. Developmental Psychology, 40, 911–926.Google Scholar
van Goozen, S. H. M., Snoek, H., Matthys, W., van Rossum, I., & van Engeland, H. (2004). Evidence of fearlessness in behaviorally disordered children: A study on startle reflex modulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 884–892.Google Scholar
van Meel, C. S., Heslenfeld, D. J., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2007). Adaptive control deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The role of error processing. Psychiatry Research, 151, 211–220.Google Scholar
Venables, N., Reich, E., Bernat, E. M., Hall, J. R., & Patrick, C. J. (2008). Reduced P300 amplitude in criminal psychopathy is related to externalizing tendencies. Psychophysiology, 45, S46.Google Scholar
Venables, N. C., & Patrick, C. J. (2012). Validating factors of the externalizing spectrum inventory in a criminal offender sample: Relations with disinhibitory psychopathology, personality, and psychopathic features. Psychological Assessment, 24, 88–100.Google Scholar
Verona, E., Patrick, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (2001). Psychopathy, antisocial personality, and suicide risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 462–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vinogradov, S., Fisher, M., & de Villers-Sidani, E. (2012). Cognitive training for impaired neural systems in neuropsychiatric illness. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 43–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vizueta, N., Patrick, C. J., Jiang, Y., Thomas, K. M., & He, S. (2012). Trait fear and negative affectivity as predictors of neuroimaging response to invisible fear faces. NeuroImage, 59, 761–771.Google Scholar
Vocci, F. J. (2008). Cognitive remediation in the treatment of stimulant abuse disorders: A research agenda. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16, 484–497.Google Scholar
Vrana, S. R., Constantine, J. A., & Westman, J. S. (1992). Startle reflex modulation as an outcome measure in the treatment of phobia: Two case studies. Behavioral Assessment, 14, 279–291.Google Scholar
Vul, E., Harris, C., Winkielman, P., & Pashler, H. (2009). Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 274–290.Google Scholar
Wagar, B. M., & Thagard, P. (2004). Spiking Phineas Gage: A neurocomputational theory of cognitive–affective integration in decision-making. Psychological Review, 111, 67–79.Google Scholar
Waller, N. G., Lilienfeld, S. O., Tellegen, A., & Lykken, D. T. (1991). The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: Structural validity and comparison with the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, A. M., Craske, M. G., Bergman, R. L., Naliboff, B. D., Negoro, H., & Ornitz, E. M. (2008). Developmental changes in startle reactivity in school-age children at risk for and with actual anxiety disorder. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 70, 158–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, A. M., Neumann, D. L., Henry, J., Craske, M. G., & Ornitz, E. M. (2008). Baseline and affective startle modulation by angry and neutral faces in 4-8-year-old anxious and non-anxious children. Biological Psychology, 78, 10–19.Google Scholar
Waters, A. M., & Ornitz, E. M. (2005). When the orbicularis oculi response to a startling stimulus is zero, the vertical EOG may reveal that a blink has occurred. Clinical Neurophsyiology, 116, 2110–2120.Google Scholar
Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522–536.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., Riesel, A., & Hajcak, G. (2012). Integrating multiple perspectives on error-related brain activity: The ERN as a neural indicator of trait defensive reactivity. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 84–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whalen, P. J. (1998). Fear, vigilance and ambiguity: Initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 177–188.Google Scholar
Wise, S. P., Murray, E. A., & Gerfen, C. R. (1996). The frontal-basal ganglia system in primates. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 10, 317–356.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2004). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
Young, S. E., Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., Krauter, K. S., & Hewitt, J. K. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on behavioral disinhibition. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 684–695.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar