Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-06T17:51:55.624Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Hormonal changes at puberty and the emergence of gender differences in internalizing disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 September 2009

By
Katherine Sanborn  and
Chris Hayward
Edited by
Chris Hayward
Katherine Sanborn
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University
Chris Hayward
Affiliation:
Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University
Chris Hayward
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Get access

Summary

As puberty is the most salient developmental milestone occurring during adolescence, there is speculation about the differential effects of puberty on the emergence of gender differences in internalizing disorders (depressive anxiety and eating disorders) during adolescence. Prior to adolescence the rates of internalizing disorders are slightly higher in boys or equal to that for girls. In early adolescence the rates of girls' internalizing disorders rise to at least two times those for boys (Angold and Worthman, 1993; Silberg, et al., 1999). Several authors have attempted to establish whether the key factor in the increase of internalizing symptoms and disorders during early adolescence is more linked to puberty specifically, or to increasing age (Angold, Costello, and Worthman, 1998; Angold and Rutter, 1992; Brooks-Gunn and Warren, 1989; Hayward, et al., 1999; Hayward, et al., 1992; Killen, et al., 1992; Paikoff, Brooks-Gunn, and Warren, 1991; Patton, Hibbert, and Carlin, 1996; Rutter, et al., 1989; Rutter, Tizard, and Whitmore, 1970; Susman, et al., 1987a; Warren and Brooks-Gunn, 1989; see chapter 8). Most studies comparing age effects and puberty effects in peri-pubertal adolescent girls have found an association with puberty but not with age in the emergence of internalizing symptoms and disorders. In a study of sixth and seventh grade girls, the relative importance of pubertal stage and age in frequencies of anxiety and eating disorder symptoms were compared (Hayward, et al., 1992; Killen, et al., 1992).

Type
Chapter
Information
Gender Differences at Puberty , pp. 29 - 58
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allgood-Merten, B., Lewinsohn, P. M., and Hops, H. (1990). Sex differences and adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 55–63CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altemus, M., and Arleo, K. (1999). Modulation of anxiety by reproductive hormones. In E. Leibenluft (ed.), Gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders: from bench to bedside (vol. XVIII, pp. 53–89). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Altemus, M., Redwine, L., and Yung-Mei, L. (1997). Reduced sensitivity to glucocorticoid feedback and reduced glucocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Neuropsychopharmacology, 17, 100–109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A., and Rutter, M. (1992). The effects of age and pubertal status on depression in a large clinical sample. Developmental Psychopathology, 4, 5–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., and Worthman, C. M. (1993). Puberty onset of gender differences in rates of depression: a developmental, epidemiological and neuroendocrine perspective. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 145–158CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., and Worthman, C. M. (1999). Pubertal changes in hormone levels and depression in girls. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1043–1053CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., and Worthman, C. M. (1998). Puberty and depression: the roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28, 51–61CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ankarberg, C., and Norjavaara, E. (1999). Diurnal rhythm of testosterone secretion before and throughout puberty in healthy girls: correlation with 17 beta-estradiol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 84, 975–984Google ScholarPubMed
Attali, G., Weizman, A., Gil-Ad, I., and Rehavi, M. (1997). Opposite modulatory effects of ovarian hormones on rat brain dopamine and serotonin transporters. Brain Research, 756, 153–159CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aurora, R. C., and Meltzer, H. Y. (1989). [3H] Imipramine binding in the frontal cortex of suicides. Psychiatry Research, 30, 125–135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biederman, J., Hirshfeld-Becker, D., Rosenbaum, J. F., Herot, C., Friedman, D., Snidman, N., Kagan, J., and Faraone, S. (2001). Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1673–1679CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biegon, A. (1990). Effects of steroid hormones on the serotonergic system. In P. M. Whitaker-Zzmitia and S. J. Peroutka (ed.), The neuropharmacology of serotonin. New York: New York Academy of SciencesCrossRef
Biegon, A., Reches, A., Snyder, L., and McEwen, B. S. (1983). Serotonergic and noradrenergic receptors in the rat brain: modulation by chronic exposure to ovarian hormones. Life Sciences, 32, 2015–2021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., and Warren, M. P. (1989). Biological and social contributions to negative affect in young adolescent girls. Child Development, 60, 40–55CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., Graber, J. A., and Paikoff, R. L. (1994). Studying links between hormones and negative affect: models and measures. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 469–486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, T., Chorpita, B., and Barlow, D. (1998). Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect and autonomic arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 179–192CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchanan, C. M. (1989). Hormone concentrations and variability. Associations with self-reported moods and energy in early adolescent girls. Poster presentation at the biernnial meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Kansas City, MO.
Burgess, L., and Handa, R. (1992). Chronic estrogen-induced alterations in adrenocorticotropin and corticosterone secretion and glucocorticoid receptor-medicated functions in female rats. Endocrinology, 131, 1261–1269CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casper, R. (1998). Growing up female. In R. Casper (ed.), Women's health: hormones, emotions, and behavior (vol. XVIII, pp. 1–14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Casper, R. (ed.) (1998). Women's health: hormones, emotions, and behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Cone, R., Davis, G., and Goy, R. (1981). The effects of ovarian steroids on serotonin metabolism within grossly dissected and micro-dissected brain regions in ovariectomized rat. Brain Research Bulletin, 7, 639–644CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., and Shear, M. K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: a theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 21–27CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeBattista, C., Smith, D., and Schatzberg, A. (1999). Modulation of monoamine neurotransmitters by estrogen: clinical implications. In E. Leibenluft (ed.), Gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders – from bench to bedside (vol. XVIII, pp. 137–166). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Dorn, L. D., Burgess, E., Dichek, H. L., Putnam, F., Chrousos, G. P., and Gold, P. (1996a). Thyroid hormone concentrations in depressed and non-depressed adolescents: group difference and behavioral relations. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 299–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorn, L. D., Burgess, E., Susman, E. J., Eye, A., DeBellis, M., Gold, P., and Chrousos, G. P. (1996b). Response to oCRH in depressed and non-depressed adolescents: does gender make a difference?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 764–773CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischette, C. T., Biegon, A., and McEwen, B. S. (1983). Sex differences in serotonin 1 receptor binding in rat brain. Science, 222, 333–335CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallucci, W., Baum, A., and Laue, L. (1993). Sex differences in sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Health Psychology, 12, 420–425CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giedd, J. N., Castellanos, F. X., Rajapakse, J. C., Vaituzis, A. C., and Rapoport, J. L. (1997). Sexual dimorphism of the developing human brain. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 21, 1185–1201CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, P., Goodwin, F., and Chrousos, G. (1988). Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression: relationship to the neurobiology of stress, part 1. New England Journal of Medicine, 319, 413–420CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., and Altham, P. M. (2000a). First-episode major depression in adolescents. Affective, cognitive and endocrine characteristics of risk status and predictors of onset. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 142–149CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., and Altham, P. M. (2000b). Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 499–504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goy, R. W., and McEwen, B. S. (1980). Sexual differentiation of the brain: based on a work session of the neuroscience research program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Grumbach, M., and Styne, D. (1998). Puberty: ontogeny, neuroendocrinology, physiology, and disorders. In J. D. Wilson, D. W. Foster, H. M. Kronbenberg, and P. R. Larsen (ed.), Williams textbook of endocrinology, 9th edn (pp. 1509–1625). Philadelphia, PN: W. B. Saunders
Halbreich, U., Asnis, G. M., Zumoff, B., Nathan, R. S., and Shindledecker, R. (1984). Effect on age and sex on cortisol secretion in depressives. Psychiatry Research, 13, 221–229CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbreich, U., and Lumley, L. A. (1993). The multiple interactional biological processes that might lead to depression and gender differences in its appearance. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 159–173CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbreich, U., Petty, F., Yonkers, K., Kramer, G., Rush, A., and Bibi, K. (1996). Low plasma gamma-aminobutyric acid levels during the late luteal phase of women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 718–720Google ScholarPubMed
Halbreich, U., Rojansky, N., Zander, K. J., and Barkai, A. (1991). Influence of age, sex and diurnal variability on imipramine receptor binding and serotonin uptake in platelets of normal subjects. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 25, 7–18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbreich, U., Sharpless, N., Asnis, G. M., Endicott, J., Goldstein, S., Vital-Herne, J., Eisenberg, J., Zander, K., Kang, B., Shindledecker, R., and Yeh, C. (1987). Afternoon continuous plasma levels of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl-glycol and age. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 804–812CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Handa, R., Burgess, L., Kerr, J., and O'Keefe, J. (1994). Gonadal steroid hormone receptors and sex differences in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Hormones and Behavior, 28, 464–476CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., Gotlib, I. H., Schraedley, P. K., and Litt, I. (1999). Ethnic differences in the association between pubertal status and symptoms of depression in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25, 143–149CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., Killen, J., Hammer, L., Litt, I., Wilson, D., Simmonds, B., and Taylor, C. (1992). Pubertal stage and panic attack history in sixth- and seventh-grade girls. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1239–1243Google ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., Killen, J., Kraemer, H., and Taylor, C. (1998). Linking self-reported childhood behavioral inhibition to adolescent social phobia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1308–1316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., Killen, J., Wilson, D., Hammer, L., Litt, I., Kraemer, H., Haydel, F., Varady, A., and Taylor, C. (1997). The psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 255–262Google ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., and Sanborn, K. (2002). Puberty and the emergence of gender differences in psychopathology. Journal of Adolescent Health, 305, 49–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higley, J. D. (1985). Continuity of social separation behaviors from infancy to adolescence in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mullata). Unpublished dissertation, Madison
Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J., and Linnoila, M. (1990). Developmental influences on the serotonergic system and timidity in the non-human primate. In E. F. Coccaro and D. L. Murphy (ed.), Serotonin in major psychiatric disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Jung-Testas, I., Hu, Z. Y., Baulieu, E. E., and Robel, P. (1989). Steroid synthesis in rat brain cell cultures. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry, 34, 511–519CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., Resnick, J. S., and Snidman, N. (1988). Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167–171CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killen, J. D., Hayward, C., Litt, I., Hammer, L. D., Wilson, D. M., Miner, B., Taylor, C. B., Varady, A., and Shisslak, C. (1992). Is puberty a risk factor for eating disorders?American Journal of Diseases of Children, 146, 323–325Google ScholarPubMed
Kirschbaum, C., Schommer, N., and Federenko, I. (1996). Short-term estradiol treatment enhances pituitary–adrenal axis and sympathetic responses to psychosocial stress in healthy young men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 81, 3639–3643Google ScholarPubMed
Klaiber, E., Broverman, D., Vogel, W., and Kobayashi, Y. (1979). Estrogen therapy for severe persistent depressions in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 550–554CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenig, L. J., and Gladstone, T. R. (1998). Pubertal development and school transition. Joint influences on depressive symptoms in middle and late adolescents. Behavior Modification, 22, 335–357CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, J., Belelli, D., Hill-Venning, C., Callachan, H., and Peters, J. A. (1996). Neurosteroid modulation of native and recombinant GABA receptors. Cellular and Molecular Biology, 16, 155–174Google Scholar
Leibenluft, E. (ed.) (1999). Gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders, vol. III. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Luine, V., Khylchevskaya, R., and Mc Ewen, B. (1975). Effect of gonadal steroids on activities of monoamine oxidase and choline acetylase in rat brain. Brain Research, 86, 293–306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLusky, N., and Naftolin, F. (1981). Sexual differentiation of the central nervous system. Science, 211, 1294–1302CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, M., Felzenberg, E., and Robbins, A. (1995). Infusions of diazepam and allopregnenolone into the midbrain central gray facilitate open field and reproductive behavior in female rats. Hormones and Behavior, 29, 279–295CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (1991). Non-genomic and genomic effects of steroids on neural activity. Trends in Pharmacological Science, 12, 141–147CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meaney, M. J., Diorio, J., Francis, D., Widdowson, J., LaPlante, P., Caldji, C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., and Plotsky, P. M. (1996). Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Developmental Neuroscience, 18, 49–72CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendelson, S., and McEwen, B. (1990). Testosterone increases the concentration of (3H)8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin binding at 5-HT1A receptors in the medial preoptic nucleus of the castrated male rat. European Journal of Pharmacology, 181, 329–331CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitsushima, D., Hei, D., and Terasawa, E. (1994). Gamma-Aminobutyric acid is an inhibitory neurotransmitter restricting the release of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone before the onset of puberty. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 395–399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, J. C., Brincat, M., Tapp, A., Appleby, L., Versi, E., Fenwick, P. B. C., and Studd, J. W. W. (1987). Effect of estrogen and testosterone implants on psychological disorders in the climacteric. Lancet, 7, 297–299CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Narbone, M., Ruello, C., Oliva, A., Baviera, G., D'Amico, D., Bramanti, P., and DiPerri, R. (1990). Hormonal dysregulation and catmenial epilepsy. Functional Neurology, 5, 49–53Google Scholar
Nathorst-Boos, J., Schoultz, B., and Carlstrom, K. (1993). Elective ovarian removal and estrogen replacement therapy – effects on sexual life, psychological well-being and androgen status. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 14, 283–293CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., and Girgus, J. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norjavaara, E., Ankarberg, C., and Albertsson-Wikland, K. (1996). Diurnal rhythm of 17 beta-estradiol secretion throughout pubertal development in healthy girls: evaluation by a sensitive radioimmunoassay. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 81, 4095–4102Google ScholarPubMed
Nottleman, E. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Susman, E. J., and Chrousos, G. P. (1990). Hormones behavior and puberty. In J. Bancroft and J. M. Reinisch (ed.), Adolescence and puberty (pp. 88–123). Oxford: Oxford University Press
Nottleman, E. D., Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Cutler, G. B., Loriaux, D. L., and Chrousos, G. P. (1987). Developmental processes in early adolescence: relationships between adolescent adjustment problems and chronological age, pubertal stage, and puberty-related serum hormone levels. Journal of Pediatrics, 110, 473–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paikoff, R. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., and Warren, M. P. (1991). Effects of girls' hormonal status on depressive and aggressive symptoms over the course of one year. Special issue: the emergence of depressive symptoms during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 191–215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, G. C., Hibbert, M. E., and Carlin, J. (1996). Menarche and the onset of depression and anxiety in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 50, 661–666CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., and Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: why more girls?Journal of Youth Adolescence, 20, 247–271CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petty, F. (1995). GABA and mood disorders: a brief review and hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 34, 275–281CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phoenix, C. H., Goy, R. W., Gerall, A. A., and Young, W. C. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology, 65, 369–382CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prosser, J., Hughes, C., Sheikha, S., Kowatch, R., Kramer, G., Rosenbarger, N., Trent, J., and Petty, F. (1997). Plasma GABA in children and adolescents with mood behavior, and comorbid mood and behavior disorders: a preliminary study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 7, 181–199CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rasmussen, K. L. R., and Suomi, S. J. (1989). Heart rate and endocrine responses to stress in adolescent male rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago. Puerto Rican Health, 8, 65–71Google ScholarPubMed
Rojansky, N., Halbreich, U., and Zander, K. (1991). Imipramine receptor binding and serotonin uptake in platelets of women with premenstrual changes. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation, 31, 146–152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romeo, R., Diedrich, S., and Sisk, C. (2000). Effects of gonadal steroids during pubertal development on androgen and estrogen receptor-a immunoreactivity in the hypothalamus and amygdala. Journal of Neurobiology, 44, 361–3683.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubinow, D. R., and Schmidt, P. J. (1996). Androgens, brain, and behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 974–984Google ScholarPubMed
Rubinow, D. R., Schmidt, P. J., and Roca, C. A. (1998). Estrogen-serotonin interactions: implications for affective regulation. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 839–850CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Angold, A., Taylor, E. J., Harrington, E. J., and Nicholls, J. (1989). Age and sex effects on depressive and other symptomatology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., and Whitmore, K. (1970). The selection of children with psychiatric disorder. Harlow: Longman
Sanacora, G., Mason, G., Rothman, D., Behar, K., Hyder, F., Petroff, O., Berman, R., Charney, D., and Krystal, J. (1999). Reduced cortical gamma aminobutyric acid levels in depressed patients determined by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 1043–1047CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saugstad, L. (1994). The maturational theory of brain development and cerebral excitability in the multifactorially inherited manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 18, 189–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scaramella, L., Conger, R., and Simons, R. (1999). Parental protective influences and gender-specific increases in adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 111–141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, P. J., Nieman, L. K., Danaceau, M. A., Adams, L. F., and Rubinow, D. R. (1998). Differential behavioral effects of gonadal steroids in women with and in those without premenstrual syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 209–216CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, L., Small, G., and Hamilton, S. (1997). Estrogen replacement and response to fluoxetine in a multi-center geriatric depression trial (Fluoxetine Collaborative Study Group). American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 5, 97–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schumacher, M., Coirini, H., and McEwen, B. (1989). Regulation of high-affinity GABA-a receptors in the dorsal hippocampus by estradiol and progesterone. Brain Research, 487, 178–183CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, C. E., Snidmen, N., and Kagan, J. (1999). Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1308–1316Google ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. (1997). Psychopathology in women and men: focus on female hormones. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1641–1647CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shively, C. A., Laber-Laird, K., and Anton, R. (1997). Behavior and physiology of social stress and depression in female cynomolgus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 871–872CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silberg, J., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., Hewitt, J., Simonoff, E., Maes, H., Carbonneau, R., Murrelle, L., Foley, D., and Eaves, L. (1999). The influence of genetic factors and life stress on depression among adolescent girls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 225–232CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simerly, R. B., Chang, C., Muramatsu, M., and Swanson, L. W. (1990). Distribution of androgen and estrogen receptor mRNA-containing cells in the rat brain: an in situ hybridization study. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 294, 76–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, R. G., Burgeson, R., Carlton-Ford, S., and Blyth, D. A. (1987). The impact of cumulative change in early adolescence. Child Development, 58, 1220–1234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slap, G. B., Khalid, N., Paikoff, R. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., and Warren, M. P. (1994). Evolving self-image, pubertal manifestations, and pubertal hormones: preliminary findings in young adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 15, 327–335CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spence, S. (1997). Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: a confirmatory factor-analytic study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 280–297CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Summer, B. E., and Fink, G. (1995). Estrogen increases the density of 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptors in cerebral cortex and nucleus accumbens in the female rat. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 54, 15–20CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suomi, S. J. (1991). Adolescent depression and depressive symptoms: insights from longitudinal studies with rhesus monkeys. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 273–287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suomi, S. J., Scanlan, J. M., Rasmussen, K. L. R., Davidson, M., Boinski, S., Higley, J. D., and Marriott, B. (1989). Pituitary-adrenal response to capture in Cayo-derived M-Troop rhesus monkeys. Puerto Rican Health Science Journal, 8, 171–176Google ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J. (1997). Modeling developmental complexity in adolescence: hormones and behavior in context. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 283–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., and Chrousos, G. P. (1991). Negative affect and hormone levels in young adolescents: concurrent and predictive perspectives. Special issue: the emergence of depressive symptoms during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 167–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Nottleman, E. D., and Chrousos, G. P. (1997). Cortisol reactivity, distress behavior, and behavioral problems and psychological problems in young adolescents: a longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 81–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., Inoff-Germain, G., Nottleman, E. D., Loriaux, D. L., Cutler, G. B., and Chrousos, G. P. (1987a). Hormones, emotional dispositions and aggressive attributes in young adolescents. Child Development, 58, 1114–1134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., Nottleman, E. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Dorn, L. D., and Chrousos, G. P. (1987b). Hormonal influences on aspects of psychological development during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 8, 492–504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., Nottleman, E. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Dorn, L. D., Cutler, G. B., Loriaus, D. L., and Chrousos, G. P. (1985). The relation of relative hormonal levels and physical development and social-emotional behavior in young adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 245–254CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanderpool, J., Rosenthal, N., and Chrousos, G. (1991). Evidence for hypothalamic CRH deficiency in patients with seasonal affective disorder. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 72, 1382Google Scholar
Warren, M. P., and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Mood and behavior at adolescence: evidence for hormonal factors. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 69, 77–83CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., and Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: the disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiland, N. (1992). Glutamic acid decarboxylase messenger ribonucleic acid is regulated by estradiol and progesteronin the hippocampus. Endocrinology, 131, 2697–2702CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, E., Longhurst, J., and Mazure, C. (1999). Childhood sexual abuse as a risk factor for depression in women: psychosocial and neurobiological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 816–828CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, M., and Moss, R. L. (1992). Long-term and short-term electrophysiological effects of estrogen on the synaptic properties of hippocampal CA1 neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 3217–3225CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeh, S. R., Fricke, R. A., and Edwards, D. H. (1996). The effect of social experience on serotonergic modulation of the escape circuit of crayfish. Science, 271, 366–369CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, E. (1995). Glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis revisited: role of gonadal steroids. Depression, 3, 1995CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, E., Haskett, R., and Grunhaus, L. (1994). Increased evening activation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 701–707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, E., Haskett, R., and Watson, S. (1991). Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 693–699CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, E., and Korszun, A. (1999). Women, stress, and depression: sex differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation. In E. Leibenluft (ed.), Gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders (vol. XVIII, pp. 31–52). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Zinbarg, R., and Barlow, D. (1996). Structure of anxiety and the anxiety disorders: a hierarchical model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 181–193CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×