Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-18T09:16:47.360Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

34 - The Evolution of Pro-social Behavior

From Caring to Compassion

from Part VIII - Abnormal Behavior and Evolutionary Psychopathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2020

By
Paul Gilbert
Edited by
Lance Workman ,
Will Reader  and
Jerome H. Barkow
Lance Workman
Affiliation:
University of South Wales
Will Reader
Affiliation:
Sheffield Hallam University
Jerome H. Barkow
Affiliation:
Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia
Get access

Summary

Some of the roots of pro-social behavior, of which caring and compassion are forms, are from the evolution of parental investment and caring (Brown & Brown, 2015; Fogel, Melson, & Mistry, 1986; Gilbert, 1989/2016, 2009; Mayseless, 2016; Preston, 2013; Seppälä, Simon-Thomas, Brown, Worline, Cameron, & Doty. (2017)). There are a number of different dictionary definitions of caring. A typical one is “the provision of what is needed for the well-being or protection of a person or thing” (www.dictionary.com/browse/caring). Fogel, Melson, and Mistry (1986) suggested that the core elements of care-nurturance are “The provision of guidance, protection and care for the purpose of fostering developmental change congruent with the expected potential for change of the object of nurturance” (p. 55).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior , pp. 419 - 435
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alves, E., Fielder, A., Ghabriel, N., Sawyer, M., & Buisman-Pijlman, F. T. (2015). Early social environment affects the endogenous oxytocin system: A review and future directions. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 6, 32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bargh, J. (2017). Before You Know It: The Unconscious Reasons We Do What We Do. New York: Touchstone.Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1989). Darwin, Sex, and Status. Toronto: Toronto University Press.Google Scholar
Bègue, L., Beauvois, J. L., Courbet, D., et al. (2015). Personality predicts obedience in a Milgram paradigm. Journal of Personality, 83(3), 299–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, N. J., Linley, L. L., & Fawcus, S. R. (2004). Randomized controlled trial of skin‐to‐skin contact from birth versus conventional incubator for physiological stabilization in 1200‐to 2199‐gram newborns. Acta Paediatrica, 93(6), 779–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornemann, B., Kok, B. E., Böckler, A., & Singer, T. (2016). Helping from the heart: Voluntary upregulation of heart rate variability predicts altruistic behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 119, 54–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment: Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation, Anxiety and Anger. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and Depression. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Brown, S. L., & Brown, R. M. (2015). Connecting prosocial behavior to improved physical health: Contributions from the neurobiology of parenting. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 1–17.Google Scholar
Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of biological importance of the decision. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 773–807.Google Scholar
Buss, D. (2015). Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind. Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Carter, C. S. (2014). Oxytocin pathways and the evolution of human behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 17–39.Google Scholar
Carter, C. S. (2014). Oxytocin pathways and the evolution of human behavior. Annual Review Psychology, 65, 17–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catarino, F., Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., & Baião, R. (2014). Compassion motivations: Distinguishing submissive compassion from genuine compassion and its association with shame, submissive behavior, depression, anxiety and stress. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 33, 399–412.Google Scholar
Cieri, R. L., Churchill, S. E., Franciscus, R. G., Tan, J., & Hare, B. (2014). Craniofacial feminization, social tolerance, and the origins of behavioral modernity. Current Anthropology, 55, 419–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowan, C. S. M., Callaghan, B. L., Kan, J. M., & Richardson, R. (2016). The lasting impact of early‐life adversity on individuals and their descendants: Potential mechanisms and hope for intervention. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 15(1), 155–168.Google Scholar
Crocker, J., & Canevello, A. (2012). Consequences of self-image and compassionate goals. In Devine, P. G. & Plant, A., eds., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Elsevier, pp. 229–277.Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976). The Selfish Gene. London: Cape.Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Ickes, W., eds. (2011). The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Press.Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2014). Friends or foes: Is empathy necessary for moral behavior? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 525–537.Google Scholar
De Dreu, C. K. W., Greer, L. L., Van Kleef, G. A., Shalvi, S., & Handgraaf, M. J. J. (2011). Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 1262–1266.Google Scholar
Del Giudice, M. (2016). The life history model of psychopathology explains the structure of psychiatric disorders and the emergence of the p factor: A simulation study. Clinical Psychological Science, 4(2), 299–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (2007). Mind the bonding gap: Or why humans aren’t just great apes. Proceedings of the British Academy, 154, 403–433.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (2010). The social role of touch in humans and primates: Behavioral function and neurobiological mechanisms. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 260–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunbar, R. (2016). Human Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ebert, A., Edel, M. A., Gilbert, P., & Brüne, M. (2018). Endogenous oxytocin is associated with the experience of compassion and recalled upbringing in borderline personality disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 35(1), 50–57.Google Scholar
Eisenegger, C., Haushofer, J., & Fehr, E. (2011). The role of testosterone in social interaction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(6), 263–271.Google Scholar
Farrelly, D., Clemson, P., & Guthrie, M. (2016). Are women’s mate preferences for altruism also influenced by physical attractiveness? Evolutionary Psychology, 14(1), 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogel, A., Melson, G. F., & Mistry, J. (1986). Conceptualising the determinants of nurturance: A reassessment of sex differences. In Fogel, A. & Melson, G. F., eds., Origins of Nurturance: Developmental, Biological and Cultural Perspectives on Caregiving. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 53–67.Google Scholar
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. A. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045–1062.Google Scholar
Geary, D. C. (2000). Evolution and proximate expression of human parental investment. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 55–77.Google Scholar
Geary, D. C., & Huffman, K. J. (2002). Brain and cognitive evolution: Forms of modularity and functions of the mind. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 667–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1989/2016). Human Nature and Suffering. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1994). Male violence: Towards an integration. In Archer, J., ed., Male Violence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 352–389.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1997). The evolution of social attractiveness and its role in shame, humiliation, guilt and therapy. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 70, 113–147.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2005). Compassion and cruelty: A biopsychosocial approach. In Gilbert, P., ed., Compassion: Conceptualisations, Research and Use in Psychotherapy. London: Routledge, pp. 3–74.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2007). The evolution of shame as a marker for relationship security. In Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., & Tangney, J. P., eds., The Self-Conscious Emotions: Theory and Research. New York: Guilford, pp. 283–309.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2009). The Compassionate Mind: A New Approach to the Challenge of Life. London: Constable & Robinson.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion Focused Therapy: The CBT Distinctive Features Series. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2014). The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 6–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, P. (2015). The evolution and social dynamics of compassion. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9, 239–254.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2017). Compassion as a social mentality: An evolutionary approach. In Gilbert, P., ed., Compassion: Concepts, Research and Applications. London: Routledge, pp. 31–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2018). Living Like Crazy. York: Annwyn House.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P., & Choden, (2013). Mindful Compassion. London: Constable & Robinson.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P., & Mascaro, J. (2017). Compassion: Fears, blocks, and resistances: An evolutionary investigation. In Sappla, E. & Doty, J., eds., Handbook of Compassion. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 399–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, P., & McGuire, M. (1998). Shame, status and social roles: The psychobiological continuum from monkeys to humans. In Gilbert, P. & Andrews, B., eds., Shame: Interpersonal Behavior, Psychopathology and Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 99–125.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Duarte, C., et al. (2017a). The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others. Journal of Compassionate Health Care, 4, 4.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Sousa, J., et al. (2017b). Measuring competitive self-focus perspective taking, submissive compassion and compassion goals. Journal of Compassionate Health Care, 4, 5.Google Scholar
Gilmore, D. D. (1990). Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Goetz, J. E., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin. 136, 351–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goleman, D., & Davidson, R. J. (2017). Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1990). Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814–834.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., & Mears, C. (1979). The Human Model: Primate Perspectives. New York: Winston & Sons.Google Scholar
Hauser, D. J., Preston, S. D., & Stansfield, R. B. (2014). Altruism in the wild: When affiliative motives to help positive people overtake empathic motives to help the distressed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(3), 1295–1305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hofer, M. A. (1994). Early relationships as regulators of infant physiology and behavior. Acta Paediatiricia Supplement, 397, 9–18.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., & Slade, A., eds. (2018). Attachment in Therapeutic Practice. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (2009). Mothers and Others. The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Huang, J. Y., & Bargh, J. A. (2014). The selfish goal: Autonomously operating motivational structures as the proximate cause of human judgment and behavior. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 37, 121–175.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 703–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen-Campbell, L. A., Graziano, W. G., & West, S. G. (1995). Dominance, prosocial orientation, and female preferences: Do nice guys really finish last? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 427–440.Google Scholar
Johnson, S. (2002). Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities and Software. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Keltner, D. (2016). The Power Paradox: How We Gain and Lose Influence. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Keltner, D., Kogan, A., Piff, P. K., & Saturn, S. R. (2014). The sociocultural appraisals, values, and emotions (SAVE) framework of prosociality: Core processes from gene to meme. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 425–460.Google Scholar
Kemper, T. D. (1990). Social Structure and Testosterone: Explorations of the Socio-Bio-Social Chain. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, J. N. (2017). Compassion interventions: The programmes, the evidence, and implications for research and practice. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(3), 432–455.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2017). The emergence of the compassion focused therapies. In Gilbert, P., ed., Compassion: Concepts, Research and Applications. London: Routledge, pp. 258–285.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. N., & Kirby, P. G. (2017). An evolutionary model to conceptualise masculinity and compassion in male teenagers: A unifying framework. Clinical Psychologist, 21(2), 74–89.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. N., Doty, J., Petrocchi, N., & Gilbert, P. (2017a). The current and future role of heart rate variability for assessing and training compassion. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 40.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. (2017b). A systematic review and meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778–792.Google Scholar
Kogan, A., Saslow, L. R., Impett, E. A., et al. (2011). Thin-slicing study of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene and the evaluation and expression of the prosocial disposition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(48), 19189–19192.Google Scholar
Kogan, A., Oveis, C., Carr, E. W., et al. (2014). Vagal activity is quadratically related to prosocial traits, prosocial emotions, and observer perceptions of prosociality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(6), 1051–1063.Google Scholar
Laursen, R. F., Siebner, H. R., Haren, T., et al. (2014). Variation in the oxytocin receptor gene is associated with behavioral and neural correlates of empathic accuracy. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, N. P., van Vugt, M., & Colarelli, S. M. (2017). The evolutionary mismatch hypothesis: Implications for psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27, 38–44.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G., & Small, D. A. (2007). The scarecrow and the tin man: The vicissitudes of human sympathy and caring. Review of General Psychology, 11, 112–126.Google Scholar
MacDonald, K. S. (2012). Sex, receptors, and attachment: A review of individual factors influencing response to oxytocin. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 194.Google Scholar
MacLean, P. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play and the separation call. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 405–417.Google Scholar
Mayseless, O. (2016). The Caring Motivation: An Integrated Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McGregor, I., & Marigold, D. C. (2003). Defensive zeal and the uncertain self: What makes you so sure? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 838–852.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2017). Attachment in Adulthood: Structure, Dynamics, and Change, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Muller, M. N., Marlowe, F. W., Bugumba, R., & Ellison, P. T. (2009). Testosterone and paternal care in East African foragers and pastoralists. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences, 276, 347–354.Google Scholar
Music, G. (2014). The Good Life: Wellbeing and the Neuroscience of Altruism, Selfishness and Immorality. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nell, V. (2006). Cruelty’s rewards: The gratifications of perpetrators and spectators. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 211–257.Google Scholar
Nhat Hanh, T. (2009). The Blooming of a Lotus: Guided Meditation for Achieving the Miracle of Mindfulness. London: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Park, G., & Thayer, J. F. (2014). From the heart to the mind: Cardiac vagal tone modulates top-down and bottom-up visual perception and attention to emotional stimuli. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 278.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J., & Panksepp, J. B. (2013). Toward a cross-species understanding of empathy. Trends in Neurosciences, 36, 489–496.Google Scholar
Petrocchi, N, & Cheli, S. (2019). The social brain and heart rate variability: Implications for psychotherapy. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Special edition: Building an Integrative Science for Psychotherapy for the 21st-Century.Google Scholar
Piff, P. K. (2014). Wealth and The inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 34–43.Google Scholar
Piff, P. K., Kraus, M. W., Côté, S., Cheng, B. H., & Keltner, D. (2010). Having less, giving more: The influence of social class on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 771–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143.Google Scholar
Preston, S. D. (2013). The origins of altruism in offspring care. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1305–1041.Google Scholar
Reed, A., & Aquino, K. F. (2003). Moral identity and the expanding circle of moral regard toward out groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 1270–1286.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., et al. (2007). Effects of profound early institutional deprivation: An overview of findings from a UK longitudinal study of Romanian adoptees. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 4(3), 332–350.Google Scholar
Sachs, J. (2012). The Price of Civilization: Economics and Ethics after the Fall. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Sedikides, C., & Skowronski, J. J. (1997). The symbolic self in evolutionary context. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 80–102.Google Scholar
Seppälä, E. M., Simon-Thomas, E., Brown, S. L., Worline, M. C., Cameron, C. D., & Doty, J. R. (Eds.). (2017). The Oxford handbook of compassion science. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., & Abu-Akel, A. (2016). The social salience hypothesis of oxytocin. Biological Psychiatry, 79(3), 194–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Siegel, B. S., et al.; Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246.Google Scholar
Siegel, D. J. (2016) Mind: A Journey to the Heart of Being Human. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Siegel, D. J. (2011). Mindsight: Transform Your Brain with the New Science of Kindness. New York: One World Publications.Google Scholar
Singer, J. L. (2006). Imagery in Psychotherapy: New York: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Singer, T., & Bolz, M., eds. (2012). Compassion: Bridging practice and science. www.compassion-training.org.Google Scholar
Singer, T., & Klimecki, O. M. (2014). Empathy and compassion. Current Biology, 24(18), r875–r878.Google Scholar
Spikins, P. (2017). Prehistoric origin: The compassion of distant strangers. In Gilbert, P., ed., Compassion: Concepts, Research and Applications. London: Routledge, pp. 16–30.Google Scholar
Spikins, P., Rutherford, H. E., & Needham, A. P. (2010). From homininity to humanity: Compassion from the earliest archaics to modern humans. Journal of Archaeology, Conscious and Culture, 3, 303–325.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T., & Whitten, A. (2001). Mental evolutions and development: Evidence for secondary representation in children, great apes and other animals. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 629–650.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 273–277.Google Scholar
Thayer, J. F., Hansen, A. L., Saus-Rose, E., & Johnsen, B. H. (2009). Heart rate variability, self-regulation and the neurovisceral model of health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 141–153.Google Scholar
Thayer, J. F., Åhs, F., Fredrikson, M., Sollers, J. J., & Wager, T. D. (2012). A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(2), 747–756.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963). On the aims and methods of ethology. Zeit-schrift für Tierpsychologie, 20, 410–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trevarthen, C., & Aitken, K. (2001). Infant intersubjectivity: Research, theory, and clinical applications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 3–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsering, G. T. (2005). The Four Noble Truths: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Vol. 1. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications.Google Scholar
Tsering, G. T. (2008). The Awakening Mind: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Vol. 4. London: Wisdom Publications.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). The roots of human altruism. British Journal of Psychology, 100, 455–471.Google Scholar
Van Vugt, M., & Park, J. H. (2009). Guns, germs, and sex: How evolution shaped our intergroup psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 927–938.Google Scholar
Weisman, O., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2014). Oxytocin administration, salivary testosterone, and father–infant social behavior. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 49, 47–52.Google Scholar
Weissbourd, R., & Jones, S. (2014). The children we mean to raise: The real messages adults are sending about values. Making Caring Common Project, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/reports/children-mean-raise.Google Scholar
Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Shackman, A. J., et al. (2013). Compassion training alters altruism and neural responses to suffering. Psychological Science, 24, 1171–1180.Google Scholar
Weng, H. Y., Lapate, R. C., Stodola, D. E., Rogers, G. M., & Davidson, R. J. (2018). Visual attention to suffering after compassion training is associated with decreased amygdala responses. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 771.Google Scholar
Wesołowski, T. (2004). The origin of parental care in birds: A reassessment. Behavioral Ecology, 15(3), 520–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten, A. (1999). The evolution of deep social mind in humans. In Corballis, M. C. & Lea, S. E. G., eds., The Descent of Mind: Psychological Perspectives on Humanoid Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 173–193.Google Scholar
Zaki, J. (2014). Empathy: A motivated account. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1608–1647.Google Scholar
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil. London: Rider.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×