Driver engagement in distracting activities and the strategies used to minimise risk
Introduction
There is converging evidence from crash data and laboratory, field and epidemiological research that driver distraction is a significant road safety issue worldwide. Driver distraction can be defined as a diversion of attention away from activities critical for safe driving towards a competing activity (Lee et al., 2008). Early analysis of crash data from the US indicated that about 25% of all crashes are a result of inattention (Stutts et al., 2001, Wang et al., 1996), with about half of these estimated to be attributable to distraction. Findings of the more recent ‘100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study’ place this estimate higher, with distraction a contributing factor in 23% of crashes and near-crashes (Klauer et al., 2006). Moreover, as the number and complexity of in-vehicle and portable technologies grow, the number of distraction-related crashes is expected to increase.
A large body of research has demonstrated that driver engagement in competing activities has a negative effect on a number of safety critical driving performance measures. Distracted drivers demonstrate reduced ability to control their speed and following distance (e.g., Rakauskas et al., 2004, Strayer and Drews, 2004); maintain their lateral position on the road (e.g., Engström et al., 2005, Reed and Green, 1999); have reduced awareness of surrounding traffic and events (e.g., Kass et al., 2007); spend less time checking instruments and mirrors (Nunes and Recarte, 2002); and miss traffic signals and signs and respond slower to hazards occurring in the roadway (e.g., Burns et al., 2002, Lee et al., 2001).
A number of studies have attempted to quantify driver engagement in distracting activities. This research is still in its infancy and the majority of studies have focused on mobile phone use, although some data exist for other distraction sources. Driver engagement in mobile phone use is common and wide-spread, particularly among drivers who are young, inexperienced, travel in urban areas and have high annual mileage rates. Phone use exposure estimates vary across countries, with up to 40% of Canadian (Beirness et al., 2002, Laberge-Nadeau et al., 2003) and 30% of Swedish (Thulin and Gustafsson, 2004) drivers admitting to using a phone while driving. Usage rates in countries such as the United States, Spain, New Zealand and Australia are higher, with around 60% of drivers reportedly using a mobile phone (Gras et al., 2007, McEvoy et al., 2006a, Stutts et al., 2003).
Self-report surveys have also been used to explore the prevalence of a broader range of distractions while driving. In an Australian study, McEvoy et al. (2006b) reported the top five most commonly reported distracting activities engaged in by drivers during their most recent trip. These were: lack of concentration (thinking about other things and daydreaming) (71.8% of drivers); adjusting in-vehicle equipment (68.7%); viewing outside objects, people or events (57.8%); talking to passengers (39.8%); and reaching for objects in the vehicle (23.1%). Relatively few drivers reported using a mobile phone (9.0%) during their last trip.
Naturalistic driving studies also provide unique insights about driver exposure to a wider range of distracting activities (Klauer et al., 2006, Stutts et al., 2005). Stutts and colleagues in the US, for example, installed video camera units in the vehicles of 70 volunteer drivers and recorded, over the period of one week, the frequency and duration with which they engaged in distracting activities. Three hours of randomly selected video data was analysed for each participant. Excluding time spent conversing with passengers, drivers spent 14.5% of the total time that their vehicle was in motion engaged in some form of potentially distracting activity. All participants engaged in distracting activities deriving from within the vehicle, including conversing with passengers, manipulating vehicle and audio system controls, using a mobile phone (to talk, dial and answer), reaching for objects, eating, drinking and reading or writing. A total of 5.7% of drivers in the study were also reported as being distracted by external events or objects.
Driver age appears to be an important factor moderating drivers’ engagement in distracting activities. This research has typically found that young drivers are more willing to engage in distracting tasks while driving. For example, a survey by McEvoy et al. (2006b) found that young drivers, aged between 18 and 30 yrs, are more likely than 50–65 yrs old drivers to engage in distracting activities while driving, including using a mobile phone (including text messaging), handling in-vehicle equipment, and attending to events, objects or people outside the vehicle. Moreover, the young drivers rated many of the distracting activities as being less risky than did the older drivers; and they were significantly more likely to report that they had been involved in a distraction-related crash in the last 3 yrs. Lamble et al. (2002) also found that young drivers (aged 15–24 yrs) reported a much higher level of mobile phone use while driving than did older drivers (55+ yrs).
Despite research demonstrating performance decrements in distracted drivers, we still know relatively little about the prevalence of driver engagement in distracting activities while driving, particularly for activities other than mobile phone use. Research on the contextual and personal factors motivating drivers to engage in or avoid distraction and their self-regulatory behaviours is also scarce. Which driver populations are most willing to engage in distracting activities? Under what conditions do drivers choose to engage in distracting activities? What strategies, if any, do drivers adopt in order to manage distraction? We conducted an on-line survey with a sample of drivers from the Australian state of Victoria to explore these questions. The study is one of the first to derive knowledge about Australian drivers’ reported engagement in a range of distracting activities during everyday driving, not just during their most recent driving trip. It is also one of the first to examine the personal and contextual factors that influence drivers’ willingness to engage in these activities, and importantly, what strategies they use to manage distraction.
Section snippets
Survey sampling and administration
The survey was administered on-line between 17 October 2007 and 31 December 2007. The survey sample was recruited from three age groups: young (18–25 yrs); middle-aged (26–54 yrs) and older (55+ yrs) drivers. Respondents were sampled in order to obtain approximately even numbers in each age group. To be eligible to complete the survey, respondents had to be aged 18 yrs or over, reside in the Australian state of Victoria, hold a valid Victorian car driver’s licence or Learner’s permit and have
Results
Eight (2.7%) of the surveys received were not completed sufficiently to include in the analyses, resulting in a sample of 287 for analysis.
Discussion
The current survey examined the level of Victorian drivers’ self-reported engagement in a wide range of distracting activities, the factors that influence their willingness to engage in these activities, the perceived effect of these activities on driving and safety, and what strategies they use to cope with distraction. A large proportion of Victorian drivers (58.5%) use mobile phones while driving and over one third of these will use hand-held phones exclusively. This finding is highly
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the MUARC Baseline Program. The authors thank the members of the Project Advisory Committee for their valuable input and advice on this project, and Dr. Stuart Newstead and Karen Stephan from MUARC for their statistical advice.
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