Genotype–environment interaction and sociology: Contributions and complexities

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.01.016Get rights and content

Abstract

Genotype–environment interaction (G×E) refers to situations in which genetic effects connected to a phenotype are dependent upon variability in the environment, or when genes modify an organism's sensitivity to particular environmental features. Using a typology suggested in the G×E literature, we provide an overview of recent papers that show how social context can trigger a genetic vulnerability, compensate for a genetic vulnerability, control behaviors for which a genetic vulnerability exists, and improve adaptation via proximal causes. We argue that to improve their understanding of social structure, sociologists can take advantage of research in behavior genetics by assessing the impact of within-group variance of various health outcomes and complex human behaviors that are explainable by genotype, environment and their interaction. Insights from life course sociology can aid in ensuring that the dynamic nature of the environment in G×E has been accounted for. Identification of an appropriate entry point for sociologists interested in G×E research could begin with the choice of an environmental feature of interest, a genetic factor of interest, and/or behavior of interest. Optimizing measurement in order to capture the complexity of G×E is critical. Examining the interaction between poorly measured environmental factors and well measured genetic variables will overestimate the effects of genetic variables while underestimating the effect of environmental influences, thereby distorting the interaction between genotype and environment. Although the expense of collecting environmental data is very high, reliable and precise measurement of an environmental pathogen enhances a study's statistical power.

Section snippets

Sociological theories on health and illness

A core principle in sociology is that social experience affects the psychological state of individuals. This social experience is derived from what sociologists refer to as social structure and social interaction. The social structure is stratified in such a way that factors such as socioeconomic status, gender, age, and the life course all have mental health consequences for individuals. Thus, for example, poverty has been a consistent risk factor for such mental disorders as depression,

Genotype–environment interactions

The study of G×E requires information on both genetic vulnerability as well as environmental factors because although a genetic effect can influence the phenotype of an organism, this genetic effect can be altered by environmental conditions. Genetic vulnerability can be inferred from direct analysis of DNA sequence, family history, and phenotype. Environmental factors are typically measured using self-report through such methods as interviews, questionnaires, direct measurement of

Complexities of genotype–environment interactions

One important limitation in G×E research has been the conceptualization and measurement of social context as a cross-sectional phenomenon. Although genes can be expressed at specific times in development, a cross-sectional conceptualization and measurement of social context does not capture the dynamic properties of environment which determine the meaning of social experiences (Shanahan & Hofer, 2005). Turner and colleagues (Turner and Avison, 2003, Turner et al., 1995) report that less than 10

Genetics and social change

Less than two decades ago, Lippman, 1991, Lippman, 1992 used the term ‘geneticization’ to refer to the interplay among genetics, medicine, and culture. According to Lippman and others (Rothman, 1998, Nelkin and Lindee, 1995, Shakespeare, 2006), as the public became more aware of genetic research, relatively uncritical acceptance of the promise of genetics and molecular biology to address problems of disease, health, and ‘deviant’ behaviour resulted in changes in cultural belief systems that

Summary and conclusions

Genotype–environment interaction (G×E) refers to situations in which genetic effects connected to a phenotype are dependent upon variability in the environment, or when genes modify an organism's sensitivity to particular environmental features. The study of G×E requires information on both genetic vulnerability as well as environmental factors. Genetic vulnerability can be inferred from direct analysis of DNA sequence, family history, and phenotype. Environmental factors are typically measured

References (61)

  • N.M. Cameron et al.

    The programming of individual differences in defensive responses and reproductive strategies in the rat through variations in maternal care

    Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

    (2005)
  • A. Lippman

    Led (astray) by genetic maps: the cartography of the human genome and health care

    Social Science & Medicine

    (1992)
  • W.R. Avison

    The impact of mental illness on the family

  • L.D. Botto et al.

    Commentary: facing the challenge of gene–environment interaction: the two-by-four table and beyond

    American Journal of Epidemiology

    (2001)
  • A. Caspi et al.

    Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children

    Science

    (2002)
  • A. Caspi et al.

    Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-htt gene

    Science

    (2003)
  • F. Champagne et al.

    Variations in nucleus accumbens dopamine associated with individual differences in maternal behavior in the rat

    Journal of Neuroscience

    (2004)
  • V.W. Chang et al.

    Fundamental cause theory, technological innovation, and health disparities: the case of cholesterol in the era of Statins

    Journal of Health and Social Behavior

    (2009)
  • T. Evans-Campell et al.

    Race and mental health: past debates, new opportunities

  • J. Freese

    Genetics and the social science explanation of individual outcomes

    American Journal of Sociology

    (2008)
  • J. Freese et al.

    Genetics and social inquiry

    Annual Review of Sociology

    (2009)
  • L.K. George

    Life course perspectives on social factors and mental illness

  • D.B. Goldstein

    Common genetic variation and human traits

    New England Journal of Medicine

    (2009)
  • I. Granic et al.

    Dynamic systems method for models of developmental psychopathology

    Development and Psychopathology

    (2003)
  • I. Granic et al.

    Longitudinal analysis of flexibility and reorganization in early adolescence: a dynamic systems study of family interactions

    Developmental Psychology

    (2003)
  • I. Granic et al.

    Combining dynamic systems and multivariate analyses to compare the mother–child interactions of externalizing subtypes

    Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology

    (2002)
  • E.L. Grigorenko

    The inherent complexities of gene–environment interactions

    Journals of Gerontology Series B – Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences

    (2005)
  • G. Guo et al.

    Gene by social context interactions for number of sexual partners among white male youths: genetics-informed sociology

    American Journal of Sociology

    (2008)
  • T. Harris et al.

    Loss of parent in childhood and adult psychiatric disorder: a tentative overall model

    Development and Psychopathology

    (1990)
  • S.W. Hartwell et al.

    Social integration: a conceptual overview and two case studies

  • H.A.M.J. ten Have

    Genetics and culture: the geneticization thesis

    Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy

    (2001)
  • A. Hedgecoe

    Geneticization, medicalisation and polemics

    Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy

    (1998)
  • A. Hedgecoe

    Schizophrenia and the narrative of enlightened geneticization

    Social Studies of Science

    (2001)
  • J.N. Hirschhorn

    Genomewide association studies – illuminating biological pathways

    New England Journal of Medicine

    (2009)
  • A.V. Horwitz

    Classical sociology theory, evolutionary psychology, and mental health

  • D.J. Hunter

    Gene–environment interactions in human diseases

    Nature Reviews Genetics

    (2005)
  • R. Jaenisch et al.

    Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals

    Nature Genetics Supplement

    (2003)
  • K.S. Kendler et al.

    Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of major depression in women

    American Journal of Psychiatry

    (1995)
  • P. Kraft et al.

    Genetic risk prediction – are we there yet?

    New England Journal of Medicine

    (2009)
  • B.G. Link et al.

    Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease

    Journal of Health and Social Behavior

    (1995)
  • Cited by (35)

    • Genetic and psychological underpinnings of motivation and satisfaction of industrial salespeople

      2020, Industrial Marketing Management
      Citation Excerpt :

      Indeed, these genes each have variants such that people holding one variant have greater potential for motivation and satisfaction than people holding other variants. However, genes by themselves are generally not efficacious in individual and social behavior, but rather their effects have been found to depend on certain psychological characteristics of people and the conditions under which their behavior plays out (e.g., Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Duncan, Pollastri, & Smoller, 2014; Seabrook & Avison, 2010; Senior, Lee, & Butler, 2011). Genetic researchers term the facilitators or inhibitors of the effects of genes, phenotypes (e.g., psychological traits or states) and the environment (e.g., working conditions).

    • Associations between neighborhood built environment and cognition vary by apolipoprotein E genotype: Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

      2019, Health and Place
      Citation Excerpt :

      If BE-cognition associations do in fact frequently vary depending on individual-level characteristics such as sex, race, and genetics, it is important to study and acknowledge this variation to inform future interventions and policies that may be unsuccessful without considerations of this potential variation. Gene-environment interactions (Seabrook and Avison, 2010), previously associated with health indicators such as smoking (Boardman et al., 2010), alcohol consumption (Heath et al., 1989), and depression (Kendler et al., 1995), may be important to consider in neighborhood environment and cognition studies. Genetic risk factors for dementia disorders may be associated with residential location (e.g., certain neighborhoods have racial/ethnic compositions from historic migration, mobility, and access patterns; prevalence of Alzheimer's disease related genetic risks differs by race/ethnicity (Farrer et al., 1997)).

    • Neighborhood crime and depressive symptoms among African American women: Genetic moderation and epigenetic mediation of effects

      2015, Social Science and Medicine
      Citation Excerpt :

      The extra-long variant, however, is not associated with reduced expression, suggesting that contrasting the response of those carrying one or more short alleles to all others is appropriate in an African American Sample. In the past decade, a number of social scientists have provided models of the manner in which genetic variations combine with environmental context to shape behavior (Shanahan and Hofer, 2005) and health outcomes (Seabrook and Avison, 2010). Indeed, research on this polymorphism indicates that the short allele does not directly affect depression.

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text