Developing decision making in Rugby Union match officials using rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102098Get rights and content

Highlights

  • The REBT intervention brought about reductions in irrational beliefs of match officials (MO).

  • Reductions in irrational belief were maintained 12 weeks later.

  • Reductions were observed in performance related anxiety and decision making reinvestment.

  • REBT is effective in helping MO’s to perform under challenging working conditions.

Abstract

There is a dearth of applied research to inform psychological provision for match-officials. The application of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT; Ellis, 1957) is becoming established as an effective psychological intervention with elite performers. This paper examined the effects of four one-to-one REBT sessions on irrational beliefs, anxiety, decision rumination and reinvestment, and match officiating performance with two elite rugby match officials. Using a single-case, staggered multiple-baseline across participants research design, visual and statistical analyses showed that the intervention brought about significant, immediate and maintained (12 week follow-up) reductions in irrational beliefs. Furthermore, participants also reported reductions in anxiety, and decision making reinvestment, alongside increased match official performance for one participant. The current study lends some initial support for the application of REBT with match officials, and develops understanding into potential links between irrational beliefs and decision making performance. The results are discussed in terms of theory, applied implications, limitations and future research.

Introduction

Adversity (e.g., failure, rejection, or ill-treatment) is ubiquitous in elite sport, and thus psychological approaches that can help those engaged in elite sport respond adaptively are of particular importance. One psychological approach that has garnered interest in sport (Turner, 2016) is rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT; Ellis, 1957). REBT is based on the central proposition that, on approach and in response to adversity, we have some responsibility for our emotional and behavioral responses, and we can exercise this responsibility through cognitive change (Turner, 2019). In REBT, the extent to which people exhibit functional or dysfunctional emotions and behaviors depends upon the extent to which they hold rational and irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs are flexible, logical, and non-extreme, and are conducive to long-term mental health and goal attainment. In contrast, irrational beliefs are rigid, illogical, extreme, and hinder long-term mental health and goal attainment (Dryden & Branch, 2008).

The theory and practice of REBT is best articulated through its GABCDE framework, where G stands for goals, A stands for adversity (which are counter to G), B is for beliefs (about A), C is for consequences (emotional, behavioral, cognitive), D stands for disputation (rigorously challenging irrational beliefs), and E is for effective new beliefs (developing and strengthening rational beliefs). Athletes are helped to recognize that when faced with an adversity (A) that is counter to their goals (G), it is their beliefs (B) about the adversity (A), rather than the adversity per se, that governs the functionality of their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral consequences (Chadha, Turner, & Slater, 2019). If A is met with irrational beliefs, dysfunctional C’s prevail, whilst in contrast, if A is met with rational beliefs, functional C’s prevail. The irrational beliefs are then disputed (D) following which new effective rational beliefs (E) are instantiated and reinforced. Though originally conceived as a psychotherapeutic model (Ellis, 1957), the introduction of REBT within sport and exercise is often referred to as REB Coaching (REBC; Turner, 2019) and includes informed professional guidance on its application for use with sport and exercise participants (see Turner & Bennett, 2018).

The detrimental effects of irrational beliefs on mental health are widely known (Visla et al., 2016) and have been demonstrated in athletic populations (e.g., Turner et al., 2019). Though all humans have the propensity for holding rational and irrational beliefs (Ellis, 1987), those operating in an elite athletic environment could be especially vulnerable to the maladaptive effects of irrational beliefs (Turner & Barker, 2013). Elite sport is characterised by a win at all costs mantra, the prevalence of irrational language (e.g., “must win”) by key stakeholders (e.g., media, fans) and an inherent fixation on success, failure, and perceived self-worth (Turner, 2016; Wood et al., 2018). The application of REBT is becoming recognised as an effective approach to enhancing psychological outcomes associated with performance (e.g., Turner & Bennett, 2018) such as: increased resilient qualities (Deen et al., 2017), increased self-efficacy and perceived control (Wood, Barker, & Turner, 2017), increased self-determined motivation (Chrysidis et al., 2020; Turner & Barker, 2014), reduced anxiety (e.g., Turner & Barker, 2014), a more adaptive physiological state (i.e., reduce resting systolic blood pressure; Wood, Barker, Turner, et al., 2017), and enhanced performance (Mesagno et al., 2020; Turner et al., 2019; Wood, Barker, Turner, et al., 2017). In their systematic review of REBT in sport, Jordana et al. (2020) indicated that REBT delivered via one to one counselling is especially effective in reducing athlete anxiety.

Of the many individuals who operate in elite sport environments, one group that has been under-researched are sport officials (Slack et al., 2014). In the current paper, instead of ‘sport officials’ we use the term match officials (MOs) to fit with the rugby context. Despite the occupational pressures that MOs are faced with (e.g., mass media coverage, abuse from spectators as a consequence of decisions made; Webb et al., 2021) there remains limited research into the effects of psychological strategies that can help MOs adapt to the ever-changing performance environment. MOs have never been more in the public eye, and more meticulously scrutinized than they are in the modern age (Dawson, 2012; O'Reilly, 2017); perpetuated by live broadcasts, match commentary, and social media. MOs routinely experience complex and ambiguous situations in which they are required to interpret, judge and communicate effectively (Cunningham et al., 2014).

Particularly, Rugby Union has seen a rise in attention and scrutiny at the elite level which has elevated the pressure on MOs, leading to moral panic (Garland, 2008). Indeed, MOs within Rugby Union receive abuse from players, coaching staff and fans alike, which has substantial implications for psychological well-being, performance and retention (Ridinger et al., 2017). The match official abuse reflects a wider trend mirrored in other sports such as cricket and association football (Webb et al., 2019). Whilst stressors such as interpersonal conflict, performance errors, and game importance are commonly reported by officials across sports (Goldsmith & Williams, 1992) there appears to be stressors particularly pertinent to refereeing at the elite level of Rugby Union. In particular, self-presentational concerns, match importance, and unfamiliarity (facing a game situation they had not faced before) were highlighted as significant stresses for elite Rugby Union referees (Hill et al., 2016). Uncertainty can be viewed as highly threatening to referees and can lead to debilitative negative emotions and choking (Hill et al., 2016). The management of self-presentational concerns and unfamiliarity is critical to match officials in order to assuage choking under pressure in part due to distractions (Mesagno et al., 2011).

Decision making skills are vital to the performance and function of an official (Larkin et al., 2011) and it has been recognised that more evidence is needed for evidence-based and efficacious decision-making training methods (e.g., MacMahon, Starkes, & Deakin, 2007b). Rugby Union MO's coping strategies have a large part to play in helping them make accurate decisions during critical moments of a game (Hill et al., 2016). The complexity of decision-making in officiating can differ between sports and have been separated into three categories. These include monitors (e.g., gymnastics judges), reactors (e.g., tennis line judge), and interactors (e.g., Rugby Union referees; MacMahon et al., 2014). Rugby Union MOs fall under the ‘interactor’ type, having to contend with highly physical, perceptual, and in game decision-making demands (Kittel et al., 2021). Considering the unique demands that Rugby Union MOs are face with, it is important that they are able to deal with the demands to maintain and uphold the integrity of the game they are officiating.

Indeed, decision-making is perhaps the most important skill for sports officials (Kittel et al., 2019b; Morris & O’Connor, 2016), in part due to the expectations of players, coaches, sporting organizations, and spectators, that the official can (or ‘should’) make accurate decisions. Tasks to develop decision-making have previously included simulation related scenarios, often under physical stress, and classroom or video-based approaches. These approaches are used to replicate the ecological validity of real game situation in order to contribute to deliberate practice and training opportunities for match officials (e.g., Kittel et al., 2021). Nevertheless, within the decision-making literature there is little attention given to the psychological preparation, and specifically the emotion regulation, required to make important and accurate decisions when faced with an array of performance related stressors (e.g., uncertainty, player interaction, mental fatigue).

Researchers suggest that Rugby Union MOs who are able to maintain performance standards during challenging moments of a game, do so by adopting problem and emotion-focused coping strategies, whereas poor performance and choking are associated with avoidance-coping strategies (Hill et al., 2016). To this end, REBT, with its emphasis on emotion and behavior regulation via cognitive change, offers an efficacious and unexamined way through which MOs could maintain their performance whilst officiating challenging moments of a game. REBT can also be applied ‘off-field’, for which is there is a particular need to develop decision-making development methods (Kittel et al., 2021).

The purpose of the current study is to examine the effects of REBT on the anxiety, decision making, and officiating performance of Rugby Football Union MOs. Whilst past research has demonstrated the effects of REBT on the anxiety (Turner & Barker, 2014) of athletes, REBT’s effects on decision making is unknown. Elite level MOs are reported to experience significantly higher levels of anxiety compared to amateur MOs (Johansen & Haugen, 2013), and researchers have linked the debilitative effects of anxiety to poorer decision making (e.g., Hill et al., 2016) and MO performance (Kamata et al., 2002). A MO’s decision making ability under pressure is valuable area of investigation, because it captures one of the core aspects of their role. One framework that can be used to examine decision making under pressure is the self-focus framework as assessed by decision rumination and reinvestment (Kinrade et al., 2010). The Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale (DSRS; Kinrade et al., 2010) measures one’s propensity to reinvest explicit knowledge when under pressure, via consciously monitoring decision making and ruminating on previous decisions; both of which are predictive of a maladaptive cognitive consequence (e.g., greater bias to home teams; Poolton, Siu, & Masters, 2011) and poorer decision making when under pressure (Kinrade et al., 2015).

From an REBT viewpoint, it is possible that MOs holding greater irrational beliefs will experience greater performance anxiety (e.g., Chadha, Turner, & Slater, 2019), and more likely to reinvest and ruminate (Artiran et al., 2019) over their decision making, resulting in poorer MO performance (Maxwell et al., 2006). Therefore, applying REBT, MOs could develop rational beliefs with a view to managing their anxiety, and consequent decision reinvestment to enable more accurate decision making (performance) as part of an adaptive state of mind.

In order to investigate these evidence-based and theory-driven presuppositions, in the current study we examine the effects of REBT on anxiety, decision making reinvestment, and MO performance with two MOs, through a single-case experimental design (SCED; e.g., Davis & Turner, 2019). SCEDs allow for the intensive and in-depth investigation of a psychological intervention (Barker et al., 2020), which is often a complex and multi-faceted process that is susceptible to contextual interference (Dryden, 2012). Also, SCEDs allow the detailed investigation of individuals using a breadth of repeated measurements (e.g., self-reported, objective, and social validation), to help form a more enhanced picture of the individual (i.e., changes in performance scores, psychological variables; Normand, 2016).

The present study adds to existing literature in two ways. First, this study will contribute to the dearth of research documenting the application of interventions to support high-level MOs who, much like elite athletes, are increasingly placed under pressure to perform. Second, the present study elucidates the mechanisms by which REBT may lead to enhanced performance, which is largely missing from the extant literature (Turner, 2019), namely decision making reinvestment. Based upon previous research and REBT theory, it is hypothesised that REBT will bring about immediate and maintained reductions in irrational beliefs and anxiety, alongside enhanced decision making and officiating performance in MOs.

Section snippets

Participants

The author’s approach to participant recruitment was to meaningfully study few participants in the interest of discovering the detailed responses of each participant in particular, then determine what, if anything, these particulars have in common (Thorngate, 1986). Using this person-centered approach we were able to report participant-specific views and circumstances that would not be typically seen in larger sample studies (Normand, 2016). Indeed, working individually with fewer participants

Experimental design

In this study a single-case, staggered multiple-baseline across participants research design was used, offering an ecologically valid setting in which to observe the intervention effects (Barker et al., 2013a). A pre-intervention (A), post-intervention (B) and follow-up (FU: 12 week post-intervention onset) design allowed for the short and longer-term assessment of intervention effects on all outcome measures. Seven and eight baseline data points were collected for Participants A and B

Participant A

Participant A reported a large (d = 2.27) decrease (−28.56%) in composite irrational beliefs between pre-to post-intervention phases. As well, reporting medium to large reductions across each of the four core irrational beliefs. Visual analysis indicated stable baseline data during the pre-intervention phase, with only two overlapping data points between that and the post-intervention phase. Furthermore, although there did not appear to be immediate change in scores, there was some latency in

Discussion

In the present study, we conducted a single-case examination into the effects of REBT on irrational beliefs, decision reinvestment, and match officiating performance with two elite Rugby Union MOs. Overall, the data supports the study hypotheses, indicating that the application of REBT brought about reductions in irrational beliefs, decreased decision reinvestment, and enhanced matched officiating performance (i.e., decision making and management). Given the psychological demands that MOs are

Conclusion

Match officials are seldom used as participants for sport psychology interventions despite being integral to the developed of elite sport and its integrity. Acknowledging this absence in the literature and the psychological challenges they are faced with, this study is the first to document the application of REBT to bring about facilitative changes in irrational beliefs, anxiety, decision making reinvestment, and performance in elite MOs. This study contributes more evidence that the

Declaration of interest

The authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

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