Predicting attitudes and physical activity in an “at-risk” minority youth sample: A test of self-determination theory

Abstract

Objectives

The present work sought to extend past research by (i) testing a model of motivational processes based on the tenets of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan [1991. A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. Vol. 38. Perceptives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press]) in an “at-risk” minority youth sample, (ii) exploring the relationship between motivation and physical activity behavior and attitudes, and (iii) assessing autonomy-support for physical activity from two social agents.

Design

A field cross-sectional design, including an assessment of physical activity over 4 days using pedometers.

Methods

Complete data were obtained from 237 predominantly low socioeconomic Hispanic 5th–8th grade students (M age=12.11 years; SD=1.21) from an elementary school located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. Four days of physical activity data, height and weight measurements, and responses to a multi-section inventory were collected. A model of hypothesized relationships among the study variables was examined using structural equation modeling.

Results

The proposed model demonstrated a very good fit to the data [Satorra-Bentler χ² (24)=46.88, p<.01; CFI=.94; IFI=.95; SRMR=.052]. Supporting the study hypotheses, the model showed that students who perceived autonomy-support toward physical activity to be promoted by their teachers and their parents experienced greater levels of need satisfaction variables (viz., autonomy, competence, and relatedness). In turn, the satisfaction of these psychological needs positively predicted autonomous motivation towards physical activity. Autonomous motivation positively predicted greater levels of (i) physical activity and (ii) positive attitudes towards physical activity. Body Mass Index (BMI) was found to be a negative predictor of physical activity.

Conclusions

Collectively, the results of the present work provide support for SDT and the application of the framework to enhance our understanding of motivational processes as they relate to physical activity within “at-risk” minority youth.

Introduction

Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States of America (Anderson & Smith, 2005) with physical inactivity and poor nutrition two of the leading risk factors for the disease. Significant variations exist in physical activity rates, obesity levels, and nutrition awareness among different populations. Specifically, research has shown that differences in obesity and physical activity appear as a function of race, socioeconomic status, and gender (US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 2000). These differences place children and adolescents from minority and low socioeconomic groups to be “at-risk” for disparities that will impact their health and well-being. Although research has shown that children tend to be more active than adults, many children and adolescents do not attain the recommended minimum levels of physical activity (US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 1997). Since physical activity patterns established during early childhood tend to track into adulthood, less physically active children tend to remain less active compared to their more active peers (Pate, Baranowski, Dowde, & Trost, 1996).

While physical inactivity is a major health concern across all segments of society, the problem is more noticeable in minority and low socioeconomic youth populations. Between 1986 and 1998, the prevalence of children who were overweight increased by approximately 120% among Hispanic children, compared to an increase of approximately 50% among non-Hispanic White children (Strauss & Pollack, 2001). Approximately 21.8% of Hispanic children and 21.5% of African American children were overweight, compared to 12.3% of White children (Strauss & Pollack, 2001). From a public health perspective, the level of physical inactivity amongst American youth, particularly those of minority and low socioeconomic populations, is a significant source of concern and requires considerable research attention. Accordingly, the present work is designed to further our understanding of the motivational processes underpinning levels of physical activity behavior and attitudes towards physical activity in a “at-risk” primarily Hispanic youth population.

Although it has been recommended that studies are needed to investigate how social factors can better promote physical activity among Hispanic, African American, and low income youth (e.g., Frenn et al., 2005), a paucity of work examining the motivational and psychosocial variables that underpin physical activity behavior and associated attitudes in ethnically diverse youth populations exists. Clearly, an understanding of the motivational processes that affect physical activity behavior and attitudes would better aid future interventions designed to encourage physical activity in disparate youth populations.

School-based physical education (PE) has been advanced as a context that should encourage children to be physically active, with the view that “active children” become “active adults” (USDHHS, 1997). However, the mere presence of a PE program does not guarantee that the children will be physically active. Although students spend almost half of their waking day at school, only approximately 2% of their time is spent in PE (Fox & Harris, 2003). Furthermore, Simons-Morton, Taylor, Snider, Wei Huang, and Fulton (1994) reported that elementary school children and middle school students spent only 8.6% and 16.1% of their PE class time actually participating in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Such figures are substantially lower than the recommended 50% minimum of PE class time that youth should spend engaging in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (USDHHS, 1997).

Given the state of PE in schools, it would seem particularly important to target outside-school or after-school programming if children are to achieve the recommended levels of physical activity (Corbin & Pangrazi, 2004). Such an objective is further warranted in view of the current climate within many American schools that is represented by the primacy of standardized testing, a focus on “core” academic skills, funding challenges, and the subsequent erosion of PE from many schools’ curricula (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2000). From a public health perspective, the time outside of school represents a tremendous opportunity to increase physical activity levels, particularly in regard to affecting a reduction in sedentary activities such as television watching and computer time (Epstein et al., 1995). Therefore, an assessment of children's physical activity patterns within school and outside of school may provide valuable insight into the factors that affect the totality of their daily physical activity behavior.

When considering viable options for increasing physical activity, it is important to consider that interventions are likely to be most successful when the factors that influence behavior and individual choice are better understood. To this end, an important avenue of research that is receiving increased attention in the literature is examining the motivational processes of children to participate in physical activity settings (cf. Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, & Baranowski, 2005; Ntoumanis, 2005; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Standage, Gillison, & Treasure, in press). Commensurate with contemporary research in physical activity settings, the present work is guided by the theoretical tenets of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan (1985), Deci & Ryan (1991); Ryan & Deci, 2000). The present work extends the SDT knowledge-base by exploring a model of motivational processes in an “at-risk” minority youth sample to predict physical activity behavior and physical activity attitudes.

SDT distinguishes between behaviors that individuals perform freely and those that they pursue for separable contingencies. The theory examines “why” an individual acts (i.e., the degree to which their motivation is more or less self-determined), how various types of motivation lead to different outcomes, and the social conditions that support or undermine optimal functioning and well-being via human psychological needs.

Central to SDT is the proposition that individuals have three basic psychological needs for autonomy (i.e., the need to endorse and be the origin of one's behavior), competence (i.e., the need to interact effectively within the environment), and relatedness (i.e., the need to feel connected, cared for, and close to others and one's community) (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Whether the three psychological needs are met is proposed to underlie variations in the quality of motivation, well-being, learning, and functioning (Deci & Ryan (1985), Deci & Ryan (1991); Ryan & Deci, 2000). Assumed to be innate and universal, these needs are motivating forces that, if satisfied, lead to optimal functioning and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2002). However, if one or more of the needs are not satisfied, ill-being and poor functioning are hypothesized. Past work in the PE context has shown the three needs to predict self-determined forms of motivation independently (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis (2003), Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis (2006)) and when combined as a composite variable (Ntoumanis, 2005; Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005). In the current work, we hypothesized that the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness would independently predict a composite variable of self-determined motivation (viz., a self-determination index; SDI).

Considering the hypothesis that the three psychological needs serve as nutriments to optimal functioning, understanding the social contexts that facilitate young people's motivation, performance, and well-being by satisfying these needs is an important line of inquiry (e.g., Véronneau, Koestner, & Abela, 2005). According to Deci and Ryan (1987), perceptions of an autonomy-supportive context (i.e., a context that promotes choice and understanding) facilitates self-determined motivation. However, if a social context supports controlling factors (i.e., contexts that limit choice or are coercive) autonomous forms of motivation, learning, well-being, and optimal functioning are undermined (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Past research in education has shown parental and teacher autonomy-support to have independent effects on autonomy and competence (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). In addition, research in youth sport (e.g., Reinboth et al., 2004) and school PE settings (Standage et al., 2006) has shown that perceptions of autonomy-support from the coach and PE teacher to positively predict the satisfaction of the participants’ needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Recognizing that numerous socializing agents exist for children and youth, in the present work we sought to build on past research (e.g., Standage et al., 2006) and examine how perceptions of autonomy-support as provided by parents (or guardians) and the students’ teachers affect the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs. We hypothesized that perceptions of autonomy-support provided by the parents (or guardians) and teachers would positively predict the students’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Understanding the differing reasons why people act has been a central theme of SDT research for over three decades (cf. Deci & Ryan, 2002). According to SDT, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation fall along a continuum of self-determination.¹ At the self-determined pole of the continuum is intrinsic motivation that refers to fully regulated behaviors that are performed for the activity's sake with no external contingency (i.e., for the interest and pleasure it provides). In the middle of the continuum reside various forms of extrinsic motivation that vary in their degree of relative autonomy. Ranging from low to high autonomy, these regulations are external regulation, introjected regulation, and identified regulation. External regulation occurs when an individual engages in a behavior to receive a reward or to avoid punishment. Introjected regulation refers to the incomplete internalization of a regulation that was previously solely external (i.e., the behavior is performed to avoid feelings of guilt or for ego-enhancement) (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Identified regulation occurs when the individual freely chooses to carry out an activity that is not considered to be enjoyable, but is thought of as important.

The type of motivation an individual possesses influences the selection of activities, attitudes toward the activity, the effort and persistence one devotes to those activities, and the affect experienced. Past work has often shown intrinsic motivation and identified regulation to predict positive behavioral, cognitive, and affective outcomes (cf. Vallerand, 2001). Participating in activities that an individual freely chooses to engage in (i.e., intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) are important distinctions in self-determined behavior. SDT would predict that autonomously motivated individuals (individuals possessing intrinsic motivation and identification) would demonstrate a strong interest in the activity, volitionally continue the activity when given a choice, and exhibit a high degree of effort. For example, fostering young peoples’ autonomous motivation toward physical activity should result in them choosing to be physically active when they are free from extrinsic reinforcement (Hagger et al., 2005). While the type of motivation underlies why an individual engages in an activity, an individual's attitude reflects his/her personal orientation or view towards participating in the activity (Hagger et al., 2005). Research has shown that autonomous motives strongly influence adolescents’ attitudes towards physical activity (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle, 2003; Hagger et al., 2005). Consistent with the tenets of SDT, we hypothesized that in the “at-risk” ethnic minority youth sample, participants’ attitudes towards physical activity would be positively predicted by their reported level of self-determined motivation.

A number of researchers (e.g., Hagger et al., 2005; Standage et al., 2003) have proposed that future studies investigating physical activity and SDT in youth should adopt more objective measures of physical activity. In the present work, we used pedometers to assess the participants’ level of physical activity. Although there are limitations to every physical activity measure, pedometers have demonstrated acceptable accuracy (Bassett et al., 1996), reliability (Tryon, Pinto, & Morrison, 1991) and convergent and discriminative validity in assessing physical activity (Tudor-Locke & Myers, 2001a). High reliability between pedometers and accelerometers in measuring physical activity has also been reported (r=.80–.90; Basset et al., 2000). It is important to note that the pedometer is not without limitations particularly as it cannot measure intensity or frequency of physical activity (Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002).

Past work from a SDT perspective has not reported the relationship between motivation and pedometer-assessed physical activity. Clearly, understanding the relationship between motivation and physical activity behavior would provide important information for researchers and practitioners interested in increasing physical activity levels, and subsequently affecting child and adolescent health. Past research has shown that self-determined motivation is predictive of positive behavioral outcomes in education (Miserandino, 1996), health care (Williams, McGregor, Zeldman, Freedman, & Deci, 2004), and in physical education (Parish & Treasure, 2003). Based on SDT and past work, we therefore hypothesized that self-determined motivation would positively predict physical activity.

Research has shown that adolescents’ participation in physical activity decreases as a function of increasing age (Stone, McKenzie, Welk, & Booth, 1998) while ethnic differences exist in regard to youth physical activity (Andersen, Crespo, Bartlett, Cheskin, & Pratt, 1998). One factor that may be related to adolescents’ participation in physical activity is body composition. Hispanic and African American youth have a higher prevalence of overweight than non-Hispanic White youth (Ogden, Flegal, Carroll, & Johnson, 2002) and the greatest prevalence of overweight is amongst Mexican American girls (Ogden et al., 1997). One method of assessing body composition is using BMI which correlates with body adiposity and represents weight levels associated with overall risk of disease and morbidity (World Health Organization, 1995). BMI for children, referred to as BMI-for-age, is gender and age specific (Pietrobelli et al., 1998). Previous research examining BMI and physical activity in young people has shown an inverse relationship between physical activity and BMI (Klesges, Klesges, Eck, & Shelton, 1995). Therefore, examining the aforementioned variables may aid in understanding adolescent physical activity behavior. Based on previous research (Stone et al., 1998), we predicted that age would be inversely associated with physical activity. In addition, we hypothesized that BMI would negatively predict physical activity.

According to SDT, the fulfillment of the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are salient and central to individuals, despite human diversity such as culture, ethnicity, gender, and age (Ryan, 1995; Ryan et al., 1999). While the manner in which these needs are satisfied by the prevailing social context may hold different meanings in various cultures/samples, the motivational processes remain constant (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Recent research has supported the generalizability tenet advanced by SDT to adolescent academic motivation (Chirkov & Ryan, 2001). In the physical activity setting, Hagger et al. (2005) examined a model of motivational processes towards physical activity based on a number of the SDT tenets (viz., the Trans-Contextual Model; Hagger et al., 2003). Using high school students from Britain, Greece, Poland, and Singapore, Hagger and colleagues found, with the exception of the Polish sample that, perceived autonomy-support from PE teachers had a significant positive effect on autonomous motives for self-reported leisure-time physical activity.

Although there has been a recent increase in empirical support for the theoretical tenets of SDT across cultures, to our knowledge no research has examined the utility of SDT to explain motivational processes towards physical activity in an “at-risk” minority youth sample. Accordingly, this study will contribute to the extant literature by testing whether a model of motivational processes based on SDT is generalizable to an ethnic minority youth population “at-risk” for health disparities.

The purpose of this study was to examine a model of motivational processes to predict physical activity and attitudes toward physical activity in an “at-risk” minority youth sample. Grounded in SDT, a model encompassing the sequence of motivational processes of “social factors → psychological mediators → types of motivation → consequences” (see Vallerand, 2001 for an overview) was tested (see Fig. 1).2, 3 Specifically, we hypothesized that:

• Students would experience greater levels of competence, autonomy, and relatedness when autonomy-support toward physical activity was perceived to be promoted by their (i) teachers and/or (ii) parents (or guardians).

• The satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness would positively predict self-determined motivation, which would in turn positively predict higher levels of physical activity and positive attitudes toward physical activity.

• BMI would negatively predict physical activity.

• Age would negatively predict physical activity.