Smoking CessationPredictors and moderators of outcome in different brief interventions for smoking cessation in general medical practice
Introduction
Brief smoking cessation interventions in primary care medicine are promising to substantially reduce the incidence of smoking-related disease [1]. In combination with a systematic screening program, they can reach the majority of the smoking population within 1 year [2]. Brief advice delivered by physicians resulted in a small but significant effect on smoking cessation rates [3]. However, a lack of time and training, inadequate reimbursement, and insufficient patient motivation to change have all been reported as major barriers to the success of smoking cessation interventions by healthcare professionals [4], [5], [6].
Computer-generated smoking cessation interventions [7] are time-saving alternatives to interpersonal counseling by the primary care physician and may be crucial for implementing smoking cessation interventions in primary care. Although computer-generated tailored self-help materials proved to be more effective than no intervention or untailored materials [8], [9], studies that tested the efficacy of tailored self-help materials in primary medical care settings revealed mixed results [10], [11], [12]. The first direct comparison of physician-delivered counseling and computer-tailored self-help materials in primary care medicine was the study “Proactive interventions for smoking cessation in general medical practices” (ProGP) [13]. It tested the efficacy of (1) computer-generated tailored letters (TL) and (2) brief advice delivered by general practitioners (PA) against (3) an assessment-only condition (AO). Analyses including the 6-, 12-, 18-, and 24-month follow-up assessments confirmed statistically significant effects of both interventions compared to the assessment-only group on 7-day (TL: OR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.2–2.4; PA: OR = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.1–2.2) and 6-month abstinence rates (TL: OR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1–2.7; PA: OR = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1–2.9). Assuming patients lost to follow-up to be smokers, 6-month abstinence rates at the final follow-up were 10.2 % in the tailored letters group, 9.7 % with physician advice, and 6.7 % in the assessment-only group.
Findings from controlled studies like the ProGP study should be considered a preliminary step in understanding efficacious interventions. Additional investigations can identify those for whom treatment may work best or can investigate the mechanisms by which a treatment may achieve its aims [14]. Predictors specify which individuals are likely to have better outcomes irrespective of the treatment they receive. Knowledge of predictors can be used as basis for tailoring intervention materials [15]. Moderators specify which individuals are likely to have a better response to a specific treatment. Following the definitions by [14], a predictor of treatment outcome is a fixed (e.g., sex) or variable (e.g., age, weight) factor that precedes outcome. A moderator is a fixed or variable factor that precedes outcome, is unrelated to the treatment received, and has an interactive effect with treatment on outcome.
Previous studies compared the predictive validity of variables derived from different theoretical approaches [16], [17], [18] or tested multivariate predictors of smoking cessation within population surveys [19], [20]. However, only few analyses have investigated a comprehensive set of predictors or moderators in the context of behavioral interventions for smoking cessation.
Results from a multivariate analysis in a combined data set from five trials in which expert system interventions were provided revealed, that a longer duration of a past quit attempt, a lower number of cigarettes smoked per day, later stage of change and more years of education were positively associated with 6-month abstinence at follow-up assessments [15]. In another study that tested the effectiveness of a computer-tailored smoking cessation program vs. no intervention, having made a quit attempt in the previous year, stage of change, and time to first cigarette in the morning were all predictive of 4-week smoking abstinence at follow-up [21]. In terms of moderators, the program was more effective among smokers in precontemplation or contemplation stages of change than among smokers in the preparation stage, and the program was more effective in smokers who said that quitting would be easy than in those who said that it would be difficult. The demographic variables of age, sex and school education did not predict or moderate program effectiveness according to multivariate analyses.
Our study explored a comprehensive set of demographic-, health-, and smoking-related variables as possible predictors and moderators of smoking cessation within the ProGP data set. This is the first study to test moderators and predictors using data from a trial in which two brief intervention approaches were directly compared to an assessment-only group. The results of our study may guide future intervention planning by specifying those patients for whom a certain intervention is most appropriate. Our work could be used as a basis for further improving tailored interventions.
Section snippets
Sample
For this study, we used data from the project ProGP. This project tested the efficacy of brief interventions delivered by a physician or by computer-generated tailored letters compared to an assessment-only group in 34 randomly selected general practices in a defined region of Northern Germany [13]. In the general practices, study nurses screened every consecutive patient for age and smoking status over a period of 3 weeks. Following screening, patients fulfilling the inclusion criteria (daily
Baseline characteristics
The baseline characteristics of the three study groups and the total sample are shown in Table 1. There were no significant differences between the study groups with respect to these baseline characteristics, except for the number of children under the age of 15 living at home (χ2 = 7.7, p = .02) and alcohol consumption measured by the AUDIT-C (F = 4.7, p = .01). The percentage of children under the age of 15 who were living at home was higher in the intervention groups than in the assessment-only
Discussion
This exploratory study aimed to test the differential effectiveness of a study conducted within the ProGP project in order to guide future intervention planning. We analyzed potential predictors and moderators of smoking abstinence in a sample of 1499 adults who smoked daily and who participated in one of two brief interventions for smoking cessation or in an assessment-only group.
The smoking-related variables FTND-score, intention to quit smoking, and smoking cessation self-efficacy proved to
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2015, Preventive MedicineCitation Excerpt :Long-term effectiveness was evaluated in six (Cabezas et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 2008; Haug et al., 2010; Salmela et al., 2009; Van Sluijs et al., 2004; Logue et al., 2005; Prochaska et al., 2005) studies; in the remaining 11 studies, follow-up lasted longer than 3 months but less than 12. Methodological quality was high in six (35.3%) of the 17 projects (Young et al., 2008; Cabezas et al., 2011; Perkins-Porras et al., 2005; Van Sluijs et al., 2004; Logue et al., 2005; Lai et al., 2010), average in 10 (58.8%) (Pinto et al., 2001; Lennox et al., 2001; Pieterse et al., 2001; Meyer et al., 2008; Haug et al., 2010; Salmela et al., 2009; Steptoe et al., 2000, 2001, 2003a,b; Prochaska et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2004; Kinmonth et al., 2008; Hardeman et al., 2009, 2011a,b; Simmons et al., 2010; Blanchard et al., 2007; Fortier et al., 2007, 2011a,b; Borrelli et al., 2005, 2010) and low in one study (5.9%) (Märki et al., 2006). The 17 included studies are summarized in Table 2.
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2013, Atencion Primaria