Short CommunicationRelationships between general self-efficacy, planning for the future, and life satisfaction
Introduction
A major function of intelligent thought is to enable people to predict the probability of future events, and subsequently to exercise control. Perceived self-efficacy refers to individuals’ beliefs concerning their ability to meet desired outcomes in life (i.e., to affect events which influence their lives or to achieve goals; Bandura, 2010). According to Bandura’s (2001) Social Cognitive Theory, humans are able to exercise self-motivation and control in order to monitor their behavior. Self-efficacy is also considered to influence how individuals reason, experience emotions, and incentivize themselves (Bandura, 1977).
Investigations have identified numerous personality traits which correlate with self-efficacy; including self-esteem, optimism, well-being, as well as academic and career performance (e.g., Luszczynska, Gutierrez-Dona, & Schwarzer, 2005). Given that self-efficacy is associated with goal-oriented behavior, individuals with a strong sense of self-efficacy are more likely to approach goals and to exert more effort to attain them (Bandura, 1994). Further, these individuals are more likely to perceive failure as internally caused and to be motivated to review their capabilities in order to improve their perceived weaknesses following failure (Bandura, 2001).
Four primary factors influence self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). The most significant factor is previous experiences with goal success: specifically, self-efficacy is in part established as a result of whether past events have been met with failure or success. Vicarious experience is the second factor, whereby an individual models the behavior of another who is successful at accomplishing their goals. Vicarious experience not only contributes to self-efficacy, but also allows for improvement of necessary skills. Third, individuals who are more easily socially persuaded are more likely to exert greater effort to achieve goals. Lastly, physiological factors also contribute to individual differences in self-efficacy: individuals with high self-efficacy may perceive physiological arousal as enhancing performance rather than hindering it.
Since performance on a future task is in part predicted via social comparison or personal experiences, it seems likely that general self-efficacy influences the extent to which individuals engage in future planning. Planning is a life management strategy which allows individuals to structure and to manifest control in their lives (Prenda & Lachman, 2001). Those who adopt a future-oriented approach are more likely to be prepared for future tasks and to exert more control while completing a task (Gollwitzer, 1996, Friedman and Lackey, 1991). These goal-oriented skills allow individuals to focus on new opportunities to achieve goals (Prenda & Lachman, 2001). Studies have identified domain-specific self-efficacy as having a moderating effect on types of planning and behavior (e.g., Luszczynska, Schwarzer, Lippke, & Mazurkiewicz, 2011).
Individual differences exist in the extent to which people adopt an immediate versus a distant approach when conceptualizing the future consequences of their behavior. Individuals who focus on long term consequences are more likely to sacrifice immediate gains in exchange for long term benefits. Alternatively, individuals who are less concerned with future consequences tend to adopt a present-oriented approach to life and to behave in ways that maximize immediate self-gratification (Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, & Edwards, 1994).
In a cross-cultural comparison of self-efficacy and other variables, Luszczynska, Gutierrez-Dona, and Schwarzer (2005) found that individuals who scored higher on the General Self-Efficacy Scale were more future-oriented than those who scored lower. However, it should be noted that this study used a condensed version of the scale and a replication study is needed to confirm its findings.
Life satisfaction is defined as a subjective sense of well-being that alludes to one’s overall happiness with life (Lent et al., 2005). Life satisfaction is evaluated based on a cognitive judgmental process in which individuals compare their current state with their desired level of satisfaction (Emmons & Diener, 1985). Life satisfaction and general well-being are influenced by various personality traits, cognitive processes, behavioral characteristics, as well as positive and negative affect (See Emmons & Diener, 1985, or Bandura, 2001 for review).
Results from Luszczynska et al.’s (2005) cross-cultural study demonstrated a positive relationship between general self-efficacy and academic, vocational, and social satisfaction. A model of subjective well-being constructed by Lent et al. (2005) showed that goal self-efficacy was correlated with life satisfaction. Specifically, goal self-efficacy was directly related to domain satisfaction, and indirectly related to overall life satisfaction. Thus, individuals experience positive emotions and satisfaction with success in a specific domain, and this in turn contributes to their sense of overall life satisfaction.
The purpose of the present study is to further investigate relationships that these planning and satisfaction variables have with general self-efficacy, as compared to domain-specific efficacy. Specifically, we examine the propensity to engage in future planning, to consider future consequences, and overall life satisfaction in relation to general self-efficacy. It is predicted that: (1) those higher in general self-efficacy will be more motivated to plan for the future, and will be more likely to consider the long term consequences of their actions; (2) those higher in general self-efficacy will experience greater life satisfaction; and (3) those higher in planning for the future will experience greater life satisfaction.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants were 242 undergraduate students (64 males, 171 females, 7 unspecified) who were recruited from a first year research pool. The participants ranged in age from 16 to 31 years old (M = 18.5, SD = 1.7). Participants completed the study to satisfy the requirements of their course.
New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSES)
Self-efficacy was measured using the NGSES (Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001). The NGSES comprises eight items that require individuals to rate the extent to which they agree with statements on a 5-point Likert scale (1 =
Results
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for scores on the NGSES, CPS, CFCS, and SWLS are presented in Table 1. As reported along the main diagonal, Cronbach’s reliability coefficients indicate moderate to acceptable internal consistency for each of the four measures, with alphas ranging from .63 to .84. As indicated in Table 1, all correlations between the variables were statistically significant. In particular, the CPS, CFCS and SWLS were all positively correlated with the NGSES at the p <
Discussion
The present study examined relationships between general self-efficacy, planning for the future, consideration of future consequences, and overall life satisfaction. Continuous planning, consideration of future consequences, and life satisfaction are all significantly positively correlated with general self-efficacy, as well as with each other.
Life satisfaction correlated the most strongly with general self-efficacy. Although the present study’s focus is on general self-efficacy and overall
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