Coping mediates relationships between reinforcement sensitivity and symptoms of psychopathology
Highlights
► Coping mediates the relationships between BIS, BAS, and psychopathology. ► Emotion- and avoidance-focused coping mediated high BIS and depression, anxiety, worry. ► Avoidance-focused coping mediated the effect of high BIS on drug and alcohol use. ► High BAS directly predicted alcohol and drug use.
Introduction
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST; Gray, 1991, Gray and McNaughton, 2000) is a biologically-based personality model that proposes three neural systems: the Behavioral Approach System (BAS), the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). BAS is an appetitive system that activates reward-seeking behavior, feelings of elation, and desire for reward (Pickering & Gray, 1999). Conversely, BIS leads to orienting, inhibition, arousal, and passive avoidance to cues of punishment, and has been conceptualized as an anxiety system (Gray, 1991). The third system, FFFS, was originally proposed to motivate avoidance and escape behaviors and produce the emotion of fear. Recent RST revisions emphasize that BIS is a conflict-detection and resolution system that inhibits prepotent conflicting behaviors, assesses risk, resolves goal conflicts, and activates the FFFS (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). Whereas BIS is activated by potential threat and generates anxiety, the FFFS is activated by the actual presence of threat and generates fear.
Gray (1994) and Pickering and Gray (1999) theorized that under- or over- sensitivity of these systems predisposes an individual to psychopathology. For example, overactivity in BIS and FFFS should produce anxiety (Gray, 1994). RST theory also proposes links between BIS, BAS, and depression (Fowles, 2001, Gray, 1994) and between BAS and substance abuse (Fowles, 2001).
Consistent with theory, RST is empirically associated with various forms of psychopathology (reviewed by Bijttebier, Beck, Claes, & Vandereycken, 2009). For example, anxiety is related to high BIS (Johnson et al., 2003, Kimbrel et al., 2007) whereas depression symptoms appear to be related to both low BAS (Hundt et al., 2007, Meyer et al., 1999) and high BIS (Johnson et al., 2003, Kasch et al., 2002). High BAS predicts drug use and abuse (Franken et al., 2006, Johnson et al., 2003) and alcohol use and abuse (Hundt et al., 2008, Kimbrel et al., 2007). Some evidence suggests that low BIS may disinhibit behavior and contribute to substance abuse (Kimbrel et al., 2007, Loxton and Dawe, 2001) but others find no relationship (Franken et al., 2006, Johnson et al., 2003).
However, this literature does not explain why personality is related to psychopathology, and a variety of potential explanations exist. For example, perhaps differences in neural circuitry and activation directly affect neurological mechanisms related to psychopathology, such as neurotransmitter activity. Within a cognitive framework (e.g., Beck, 2005), differences in personality may produce different cognitions that mediate psychopathology. Another option may be that differences in personality affect the person’s behaviors, which then increase risk for psychopathology. For example, as BAS is linked to risk-taking behaviors (Fowles, 2001), high BAS may increase the likelihood of trying an illicit drug for the first time, which provides an opportunity to develop a substance disorder.
Another potential conduit from RST to psychopathology involves coping behaviors. For example, if FFFS is associated with avoidance, it may predispose an individual to use coping strategies related to avoidance and denial, which prevent effective coping and may increase risk for psychopathology (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The coping literature proposes three forms of coping: problem-, emotion- and avoidance-focused coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Problem-focused coping aims to alter the situation causing the distress and involves active and deliberate attempts to deal with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping attempts to regulate the emotional response to the stressor. Avoidance-focused coping attempts to remove the experience and thoughts about a stressful situation (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986).
Research on other personality models suggests that coping styles may mediate relationships between personality and psychopathology. For example, neuroticism, a personality facet similar to BIS/FFFS, predicts more emotion-focused coping and less problem-focused coping (O’Brien and DeLongis, 1996, Penley and Tomaka, 2002). To the authors’ knowledge, only three studies have examined whether coping strategies mediate the relationships between RST and symptoms of psychopathology. These studies suggest that coping mediates the relationship between BIS and disordered eating (Hasking, 2006) and delinquency (Hasking, 2007) in adolescents. In adults, emotion-focused and avoidance-focused coping strategies mediated the relationship between FFFS and alcohol abuse whereas BAS exerted a direct effect upon drinking behaviors (Ivory & Kambouropoulos, 2012). Overall, the research on BIS/FFFS, BAS, and coping is sparse. Examining how coping may mediate relationships between personality and psychopathology may provide insight into the mechanisms by which personality is linked to psychopathology and may contribute to the development of prevention and intervention strategies.
The purpose of the current study is to replicate the mediational effects of coping on alcohol use found in Ivory and Kambouropoulos (2012) and to extend upon this research by examining whether coping mediates relationships between reinforcement sensitivity and depression, anxiety, worry, and drug use. First, we predicted that emotion- and avoidance-focused coping behaviors would mediate the effects of high BIS/FFFS on depression, anxiety, and worry. Because low BAS is associated with less approach behavior, we also predict that less problem-focused coping will mediate the effects of low BAS upon depression. As high BAS may be associated with sensation seeking motives for substance abuse, we predict only direct effects from BAS to alcohol and drug use. Individuals high in BIS/FFFS, conversely, may use substances to cope with or avoid negative emotions, and we predict that emotion-and avoidance-focused coping will mediate the relationships between BIS/FFFS and alcohol and drug use.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants were undergraduate psychology students (n = 293) who voluntarily participated in this study for course credit. The sample (mean age = 19.1, SD = 3.7) was predominantly female (72%), Caucasian (58%), and African American (23%), consistent with this university’s demographics.
Results
Means and standard deviations are presented in Table 1. Pearson correlations are presented in Table 2. Although the sample consisted of college students, many students exhibited clinically significant symptoms of psychopathology. For example, 21% had an AUDIT score of 8 or more, indicating hazardous drinking and potential alcohol dependence (Saunders et al., 1993). Sixteen percent had a BDI score of 13 or above, indicating at least mild depression (Beck et al., 1996), and 32% had a BAI score of
Discussion
This is the first study to examine whether coping mediates relationships between reinforcement sensitivity and depression symptoms, anxiety, worry, and drug use. Results for depression indicated that, as hypothesized, emotion-focused and avoidance-focused coping mediate the relationship between BIS/FFFS and depression symptoms. This indicates that individuals higher in BIS/FFFS use more affective and avoidance strategies, which contribute to increased depression symptoms. Also consistent with
Acknowledgments
This research was partly supported by the Office of Academic Affiliations VA Advanced Fellowship Program in Mental Illness Research and Treatment, the Department of Veterans Affairs South Central Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC) and partly supported by resources and facilities of the Houston VA HSR&D Center of Excellence (HFP90-020). The views expressed reflect those of the authors and not necessarily the policy or position of the Department of Veterans Affairs,
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