Dispositional pessimism but not optimism is related to sickness absence caused by musculoskeletal symptoms
Highlights
► We examined associations between optimism/pessimism and sickness absence. ► Additional variables were demographics and work environment factors. ► Pessimism predicted amount of absence due to musculoskeletal complaints.
Introduction
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) account for a higher proportion of sickness absence from work in the European Union than any other health condition (Bevan et al., 2009; Edwards & Greasley, 2010). The etiology of MSD is considered to be multidimensional and includes biomechanical risk factors, psychosocial workplace factors, and individual characteristics. For example, biomechanical risk factors like repetitive work and working in a static posture have been shown to predict musculoskeletal symptoms in a large variety of occupational groups (Bernard, 1997, van der Windt et al., 2000). Reviews on the impact of psychosocial factors have demonstrated that employees’ perceptions of job control, job demands, and social support from colleagues and supervisors are important in relation to musculoskeletal complaints (e.g., Ariëns et al., 2001, Bongers et al., 2002). The evidence from these reviews suggests that higher demands at work, less control over work, and lower support at work independently or in combination predict a wide variety of complaints, including neck pain and upper extremity symptoms.
Alongside mental disorders, MSD are also one of the top causes of inflows into disability, with the majority caused by long-term absences (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2009). MSD are thus not only a major burden for the individual, they also represent a substantial economical cost for society as a whole. It is estimated that OECD countries on average spend two percent of their gross domestic product (GDP) on sickness absence and disability benefits. In Norway, this estimate is even higher, with expenditures close to five percent of GDP, highest among all Member States (OECD, 2009). Identifying factors related to absence caused by musculoskeletal complaints can therefore have huge benefits for both the individual and society at large.
The aim of the present study was to examine dispositional optimism/pessimism as possible individual characteristics affecting sickness absence caused by musculoskeletal complaints. Dispositional optimism and pessimism can be defined as, respectively, generalized positive and negative outcome expectancies that are relatively stable across time and situations (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Optimistic individuals generally hold positive expectations regarding the future and expect good things to happen to them. Pessimism, on the other hand, indicates a tendency to believe that generally bad things will happen to you in life across a wide variety of settings.
Both optimism and pessimism have been found to be associated with a broad range of health outcomes. Optimism has been found to predict rapid recovery from surgery (Chamberlain, Petrie, & Azariah, 1992), adaption to chronic disease (Fournier, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2002), and better survival among cancer patients (Allison, Guichard, Fung, & Gilain, 2003), while a pessimistic life orientation has been shown to be a significant risk factor for mortality among cancer patients (Schulz, Bookwala, Knapp, Scheier, & Williamson, 1996) and physical illness among university students (Jackson, Sellers, & Peterson, 2002).
The beneficial effects of optimism on health result in part because optimistic individuals employ more adaptive coping strategies and attract supportive social relationships (Carver et al., 2010, Solberg Nes and Segerstrom, 2006). The positive expectancies of optimists lead to engagement and goal-directed efforts, and studies have found optimism to be associated with more approach and problem-oriented coping strategies (for a review, see Solberg Nes and Segerstrom (2006)). People who are doubtful in regard to goal-attainment (i.e., pessimistic) tend to give up or try to escape adversity by wishful thinking and other temporary distractions. Moreover, results from a meta-analytic review suggest that optimists are more flexible in their coping strategies and tend to use strategies that match the demands of the situation (e.g., more emotion-focused coping for traumas and more problem-oriented coping for academic stressors; Solberg Nes & Segerstrom, 2006).
In work settings, the effect of optimism and pessimism on health may also be indirect through individuals’ perceptions of subjective work environment factors. Individual differences in pessimism/optimism may influence the degree to which people experience their work as demanding and uncontrollable, as well as how they relate to co-workers and supervisors. These experiences are in turn related to health outcomes (e.g., Ariëns et al., 2001).
Although several studies have investigated the association between optimism and quality of life among individuals suffering from chronic MSD (e.g., Brenes et al., 2002, Fournier et al., 2002, Long and Sangster, 1993), little is known about the relationships between optimism/pessimism and sickness absence caused by musculoskeletal complaints. Based on the discussion presented above we propose that optimism and pessimism affect the amount of sickness absence caused by musculoskeletal symptoms. Specifically, the following hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis 1 Dispositional optimism is negatively related to the number of sickness absence days. Hypothesis 2 Dispositional pessimism is positively related to the number of sickness absence days.
In addition, we hypothesized additional indirect effects of optimism and pessimism via perceptions of the psychosocial environment. The two following hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis 3 Dispositional optimism has additional indirect effects on sickness absence through perceptions of the psychosocial work environment. Hypothesis 4 Dispositional pessimism has additional indirect effects on sickness absence through perceptions of the psychosocial work environment.
Section snippets
Sample and procedure
The data were obtained from a personnel survey conducted in the period March–June, 2007, among 15,410 employees of the Norwegian Armed Forces. The population consisted of employees fulfilling a large variety of occupational responsibilities within the Armed Forces, including administration, logistics, medical service, and active duty soldiers. The survey was administered by the Health Registry, a national register established by the Norwegian Parliament and administered by the Norwegian
Results
We conducted preliminary analyses to examine the relationships between gender and the variables under investigation. A summary of descriptive statistics and correlations among all variables separately for men and women is provided in Table 1. Men reported significantly higher amounts of work load (t[1188] = 2.987, p = .003), job control (t[1188] = 2.024, p = .043), and ergonomic (t[495.98] = 3.247, p = .001) and environmental (t[477.05] = 4.761, p < .001) demands. Women were on average older (t[400.277] =
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between optimism, pessimism, and sickness absence caused by musculoskeletal complaints. We hypothesized that optimism and pessimism would have direct effects on the number of sick-leave days (Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2, respectively). Our results indicate that it is more important to not have pessimistic outcome expectancies than it is to have optimistic expectancies. In support of our Hypothesis 2, pessimism significantly predicted
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Chief Physician John I. Brevik from the Joint Medical Command for providing access to the data employed in the present study.
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