Parent and youth perfectionism and internalizing psychopathology
Introduction
Perfectionism has been historically conceptualized as a strong need to perform at a flawless level in many aspects of one’s life (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Many components of perfectionism have been investigated in recent years, including excessive concern about making mistakes, doubting one’s ability to achieve goals, and order and neatness. Multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism have also been proposed and empirically supported, including Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) popular model of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism.
Self-oriented perfectionism refers to harsh self-criticism and placing exacting demands on oneself, so the source and subject of perfectionism are internal. Socially prescribed perfectionism refers to a belief that significant others expect one to be perfect, so the source of perfectionism is external but the subject is internal. Other-oriented perfectionism refers to high expectations for the performance of others, so the source of perfectionism is internal but the subject is external (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Greater research attention has been paid to self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, especially in youths, so the emphasis here will be on these constructs (McCreary, Joiner, Schmidt, & Ialongo, 2004).
Self-oriented perfectionism in adults has been linked to high expectations for success, well-developed organizational abilities, and strong achievement motivation but also depression, anxiety, and eating disorders (Flett et al., 1989, Frost et al., 1993, Hewitt and Flett, 1990). Self-oriented perfectionism in children and adolescents has been linked to scholastic effort, intrinsic motivation, and strong desire to meet academic goals. However, such perfectionism has also been closely linked to body dissatisfaction and anorexia and bulimia in youths (Castro et al., 2004, Evans et al., 2008, McVey et al., 2002, Nilsson et al., 2008).
Socially prescribed perfectionism carries risks for adults and children as well. Adults high in socially prescribed perfectionism tend to fear negative evaluation, display social anxiety and hopelessness, desire much positive attention from others, procrastinate on tasks, feel overly self-conscious in public, and have Type A personalities (Alden et al., 2002, Chang and Rand, 2000, Flett et al., 1991). As such, these adults are at risk for panic disorder, social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and other areas of maladjustment (Antony et al., 1998, Sherry et al., 2003). Socially prescribed perfectionism in youths is related to positive aspects such as greater effort in school but also negative aspects such as depression, suicidality, anxiety, low self-esteem, body image dissatisfaction, and dysfunctional eating attitudes (Donaldson et al., 2000, Hewitt and Flett, 2002, Hewitt et al., 1997).
Given similar effects of perfectionism on adults and children, researchers have considered transmissive links between the two parties. Earlier theorists proposed that child perfectionism develops from strong desires to derive approval and affection from potentially demanding, controlling, austere, or critical parents. Recent evidence supports these claims. For example, Neumeister and Finch (2006) examined high-ability students and found that insecure attachment with parents was closely aligned with authoritarian and uninvolved parenting and child self-oriented or socially prescribed perfectionism. Soenens et al., 2005, Soenens et al., 2008, Soenens et al., 2006 also found parental psychological control to be related to elevated maladaptive perfectionism in youth and that both variables could lead to adverse effects on adolescent eating patterns and well-being.
Genetic influences or social learning/modeling may also be key transmission factors given that several researchers have found parent and child perfectionism to be closely linked (Bachner-Melman et al., 2007, Tozzi et al., 2004). Such modeling may involve primary caregivers (mothers) or result from same-sex interactions (e.g., fathers and boys). “Youths” in these studies have generally been adult participants, however (Chang, 2000, Frost et al., 1991, Vieth and Trull, 1999).
One area that may link parent and child perfectionism but that has received little direct attention in the literature is parent psychopathology. Flett and Hewitt (2002) proposed an anxious rearing model of perfectionism in that children exposed to parents who continually worry about being perfect or who are generally anxious will become perfectionistic to avoid making mistakes and minimize associated threats. Researchers have found that anxious youths generally have anxious parents, and that parent perfectionism is related to child test anxiety, but little information is available about aspects of child perfectionism and parent psychopathology such as anxiety, depression, or obsessive compulsiveness (Besharat, 2003, Fisak et al., 2007).
The purpose of this study was thus to investigate, using standardized measures, two specific hypotheses about perfectionism in adults and youths aged 11–17 years. The first hypothesis was that parent perfectionism would predict youth perfectionism and that this relationship would be mediated by parent psychopathology. The second hypothesis was that parent perfectionism would predict youth psychopathology and that this relationship would be mediated by parent psychopathology. In line with extant literature, hypotheses concentrated on parent and child internalizing psychopathology as well as parent self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and adolescent self-oriented perfectionism.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants were 97 youths aged 11–17 years (M = 14.3, SD = 2.0) and their parents. Youths were primarily female (54.6%); parents included 89 mothers and 63 fathers. Several families (19.6%) had two children who participated in the study. Most families were dual-parent (57.7%). Family members were primarily European-American (75.9%) but also Hispanic (9.2%), Asian-American (6.0%), multiracial (4.0%), African-American (3.2%), or other (1.6%). Families spoke English as their primary language. Family
General results
Mothers and fathers did not significantly differ with respect to scores for self-oriented or socially prescribed perfectionism. Sons and daughters did not significantly differ with respect to scores for self-oriented perfectionism. No statistically significant differences were found for any perfectionism type across ethnic groups. Mean scores for pertinent variables are in Table 1; Pearson correlations for primary dependent variables are in Table 2.
To hone the data analytic process, Pearson
Discussion
This study is one of the first to specifically investigate the relationship between parent perfectionism and psychopathology with adolescent perfectionism and psychopathology using standardized measures among youths aged 11–17 years. The hypotheses were partially supported in that positive findings were largely constrained to mothers and sons. Within this relationship, however, two key findings emerged. First, maternal perfectionism was clearly related to sons’ self-oriented perfectionism and
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