The interaction of reinforcement sensitivity and life events in the prediction of anhedonic depression and mixed anxiety-depression symptoms

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Abstract

This study examined the relationship between reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), life stress, and internalizing symptoms. Generally, low sensitivity of the behavioral approach system (BAS) predicts depression whereas high sensitivity of the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) predicts anxiety and depression. However, few studies have examined how RST variables interact with life stress to predict these symptoms. It was hypothesized that higher BIS sensitivity would predict greater anxious arousal; lower BAS sensitivity and higher BIS sensitivity would predict greater anhedonic depression as predicted by the joint subsystems hypothesis (JSH); and low BAS, high BIS, and high life stress would interact to predict anhedonic depression symptoms whereas high BIS with high life stress would predict anxious symptoms. A sample of 285 undergraduates completed measures of RST, life stress, and internalizing symptoms. Greater BIS sensitivity predicted mixed anxiety–depression and anhedonic depressed symptoms, lower BAS predicted anhedonic depression symptoms, and life events predicted mixed anxiety–depression. Three-way interactions indicated that for high life stress, BIS predicted both types of symptoms. For low life stress, low BAS and high BIS predicted anhedonic depression whereas high BIS and high BAS predicted mixed anxiety–depression. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the JSH.

Introduction

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST; Gray & McNaughton, 2000) is a biologically-based personality model consisting of three major brain systems that underlie normal mood, orienting, and appetitive functioning. These brain systems are referred to as the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), the behavioral approach system (BAS), and the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS). The BAS is sensitive to cues of reward and relief from punishment and activates reward-seeking behavior, feelings of elation, and desire for reward despite risk or threat to the individual (Pickering & Gray, 1999). Conversely, the BIS causes anxiety, inhibition, orienting, arousal, and passive avoidance in the face of cues to punishment and novel stimuli. Finally, the FFFS motivates avoidance and escape behaviors in response to both conditioned and unconditioned aversive stimuili, and produces the emotion of fear. Corr (2004) has suggested that BIS as previously studied actually reflects combined BIS/FFFS functioning. Therefore, the current paper refers to BIS/FFFS functioning as BIS functioning.

Extreme under- or over- sensitivity of these systems predicts psychopathology (Pickering & Gray, 1999). It is well established that high BIS is related to anxiety in adults (Johnson et al., 2003, Kimbrel et al., 2007). Many studies have also found that high BIS is related to depression (e.g. Kasch, Rottenberg, Arnow, & Gotlib, 2002).

In contrast, the literature on BAS in the prediction of internalizing psychopathology has been less consistent. Low BAS has been found to predict depression (Depue et al., 1987, Meyer et al., 1999) and has been significantly associated with persistence of depression over an 8-month interval (Campbell-Sills, Liverant, & Brown, 2004). Higher BAS in depressed patients predicts recovery from the disorder, whereas there was no relation between BIS and recovery. However, Johnson et al. (2003) found no relationship between BAS and diagnoses of depression in a longitudinal study that classified participants as meeting criteria for major depression, anxiety disorder, or both based upon DSM-IV diagnostic criteria. However, this study did not distinguish anhedonic depression from mixed anxiety–depression, which Gray (1991) hypothesized differ in terms of BAS activity. Kimbrel et al. (2007) found that low BAS predicted anhedonic depression symptoms but not mixed anxiety–depression symptoms suggesting the need to distinguish between these types of symptoms. Therefore, more research is needed to clarify the association of BAS to various types of internalizing symptoms.

Corr’s joint subsystems hypothesis (JSH; 2002) provides a theoretical perspective on BAS functioning in depression. The JSH states that neither BIS nor BAS should be examined separately because they are functionally interdependent and that each has antagonistic effects upon the action of the other system. Thus, low approach would exacerbate the effect of high avoidance in producing depression symptoms. The JSH does not necessarily require an interaction, but rather two main effects would be sufficient to support this hypothesis (Corr, 2002). Few studies have examined the JSH in relation to internalizing symptoms, and therefore more investigation is necessary.

Finally, RST states that an individual is predisposed to certain levels of BIS and BAS sensitivity by genetic and biological factors but that environmental contingencies and learning modify these predispositions throughout development. For example, Fowles (1994) has hypothesized that individuals with high BIS may be overly sensitive to aversive stimuli. Thus, it may be the case that high BIS individuals are more likely to develop anxiety or depression after experiencing stressful life events. Negative life events predict depression, anxiety, and overall psychopathology in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (Paykel, 2003, Tennant, 2002); but few studies have examined the interaction of personality and life stress in predicting internalizing symptoms. The few to do so suggest that personality and life stress may interact to produce greater depressive symptoms. For example, Kendler, Kuhn, and Prescott (2004) found both main effects of neuroticism and stressful life events and also an interaction of these two variables in the prediction of later depression onset. However, others (e.g. Rijsdijk et al., 2001) found no evidence for an interaction between neuroticism and life events in predicting depression, suggesting that more studies are needed to clarify the association between personality, life events, and psychopathology.

The current study is, to the authors’ knowledge, one of the first to look at the interaction of life stress, RST personality variables, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. As depression and anxiety are assumed to represent a continuum from normal to psychopathology, this study examined symptoms in a college student population. It was hypothesized that (a) higher BIS sensitivity would predict greater anxious arousal; (b) consistent with the JSH, lower BAS sensitivity and higher BIS sensitivity would predict greater anhedonic depression; (c) low BAS and high BIS would predict anhedonic depression symptoms when life stress was high whereas high BIS would predict anxious symptoms when life stress was high.

Section snippets

Participants

Three hundred and seventeen introductory psychology students at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro participated. The sample (mean age = 20.3; SD = 4.4) was predominantly Caucasian (68%) and female (66%), which was consistent with the university demographics. Data from 32 participants were excluded for missing responses or high scores on the Infrequency Scale (Chapman & Chapman, 1986), resulting in a final sample of 285 participants.

Mood and anxiety symptom questionnaire – short form

The MASQ short form (Watson & Clark, 1991) is a 62-item

Results

Internal consistency and bivariate correlations among study variables are presented in Table 1. All scales had acceptable to good internal consistency (see Table 1). Anxious Arousal, General Distress, and the total negative life events score had a skewed distribution and were log transformed. To combine the two RST measures and produce composite variables for BIS and BAS, a principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted with Promax oblique rotations to allow factors to correlate. A PCA with

Discussion

The current study assessed the relationship between RST personality traits, stressful life events, and internalizing symptoms. Results indicate that BIS, BAS, and stressful life events interact to produce internalizing symptoms, although the pattern of predictors differs across anxious and depressive symptoms. Overall, these findings suggest that life events are important variables to consider in conjunction with specific personality styles; however, life events may not predict internalizing

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results from the current study indicate that both personality and life events are important variables to consider in relation to internalizing symptomatology. In addition, some support was found for the JSH. These results suggest that future research in this area is warranted.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Nelson-Gray Lab for helpful feedback on earlier drafts of this manuscript.

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