Emotional intelligence under stress: Useful, unnecessary, or irrelevant?
Introduction
Stress can be defined as a person–environment relationship (Folkman, 1984, Lazarus, 1966). One way to measure this type of stress is to assess self-perceptions of the ability one feels to control events and one’s feelings of besiegement by current problems. For most, life seems easier when it is predictable and controllable. For example, when a romantic relationship breaks apart, the impact of the breakup is influenced by individual difference factors such as having seen the end coming, knowing that the negative emotions will soon pass, or feeling competent to find another romantic partner. Such feelings of prediction and control can ease the strain of the breakup. However, feelings of prediction and control do not necessarily lessen the intensity of the sadness one experiences; they do help individuals feel less burdened, and more able to deal with the breakup. Feelings of control are the first step in coping with stressful events, without them progress toward a solution is unlikely. The present research investigates individual differences that may influence this sense of control. Note that we did not examine stress as current life problems (stressors) or as emotional reactions (distress), but as one’s perceived ability to manage the person–environment relationship.
The benefits of a sense of control are well known. For example, it is associated with mental well-being (Beck, 1976), progress in therapy (Shapiro, Bates, Greenzang, & Carrere, 1991), and physical health (for a review see Shapiro, Schwartz, & Astin, 1996). Given the robust benefits provided by feelings of control, it is important to learn more about how to increase these feelings. By examining individual differences associated with perceived stress, we can discover more information about psychological states and processes involved in a sense of control.
The current research investigated individual differences that might predict such feelings of stress, that is, these feelings of inability to control events and self-perception of being inundated by current events. Specifically, we examined emotional intelligence ability, its relationship to perceived stress, and the moderating function of the self-reported personality traits of emotional intensity, emotional clarity, and attention to emotions. We first discuss emotional intelligence (EI) and its expected relation to stress then, proceed to the meta-emotion traits of clarity, intensity, and attention.
Section snippets
EI and stress
Predictions about the relation between EI and stress likely depend on which model of EI is employed because definitions vary widely (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004) to include constructs as diverse as self-awareness, motivation, optimism, empathy, assertiveness, and happiness. Mayer and Salovey (1997) view EI as ability, that is, a set of skills for processing emotion-relevant information. This model is the only one for which an objective, ability measure has been developed (Mayer et al.,
Individual differences
A recent literature review (Gohm & Clore, 2000) collected information on some individual difference scales related to the experience of emotion. Three of the meta-emotion traits reported in this review (clarity, intensity, and attention) were found to be directly related to well-being, attribution style, and beliefs about coping style (Gohm & Clore, 2002). Because these traits have been shown to affect the experience of emotion and emotion related constructs, we expected that these traits
Participants
Freshmen from a mid-sized US university (N = 158, 97 female, 13 unreported, M age = 18.3, 86% Caucasian, 14% African American) were from either a required university studies class, or psychology classes. The latter received partial course credit. Ten participants were eliminated for incomplete materials. Participants were a subset of a larger sample which completed all measures except EI.
Procedures
Among psychology students variables were assessed during one session in the following order: stress,
Direct associations
Across all participants, EI was not associated with stress (feelings of inability to control life events) nor was attention (see Table 1). Clarity was associated with lower stress and intensity with greater stress, as expected. Further, hierarchical regression analyses indicate that clarity and intensity contribute uniquely, changes in R2 = .08, F(1, 155) = 16.16, p < .001, and .11, F(1, 155) = 21.17, p < .001, respectively. Note also that the low correlation between EI and clarity indicates that
Discussion
Our results suggest that EI may help some individuals, but not others. EI was associated with relatively lower stress (feelings of inability to control life events) for the Hots and maybe the Cools, but not the Cerebrals and Overwhelmed. The Cerebrals were the least stressed type, have mild reactions to life events (low intensity), and report understanding their reactions (high clarity). Thus, for Cerebrals there may be little room for the play of individual differences in EI to be associated
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