Empathy, an integrative model
Introduction
We can observe that a large number of 2-year-old infants try to comfort their mothers when they hurt their knee or when they have a coughing fit. What makes an infant respond in this way? What do they think and feel at that moment? Is this type of behavior a good example of empathy? And do children lack something when they do not react to those signs of pain and discomfort? If so, what can this be?
Empathy is identified with role taking (knowing what another person feels), with emotional congruence (feeling what another person feels), and with sympathetic concern (caring and responding to what another person feels) (Davis, 1996; Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987; Levenson & Ruef, 1992). These definitions delineate different psychological processes as empathic. Still, although there is little consensus about what is the core, or the ‘right’ definition of empathy, it is generally agreed that empathy is relevant for prosocial action and that all the factors delineated above are important—whether they are labelled as empathy or not (Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, Wagner, & Chapman 1992). Apart from these psychological elements, other psychological and contextual factors are mentioned as relevant for understanding how children react to pain and need. Hoffman (1982), Hoffman (1984), Hoffman (1987) relates empathic reactions to cognitive development and points to the importance of the emergence of self—other differentiation as the general cognitive background of the development of empathy. Eisenberg (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992; Eisenberg & Okun, 1996) emphasizes the crucial role of self-regulation in handling the pain and need of others. Empathic behaviour is impossible without the ability to regulate emotions, according to Eisenberg. Davis (1996) points to the importance of contextual, especially relational factors in empathy, and has situated these (and other) possible antecedents of empathy within an organizational model.
These developments in research on empathy surely broadened our horizon in understanding empathy. However, an overall picture of the processes and contextual features that lead (for example) children to comfort their mother when she is in pain, is still missing. In this paper we want to provide such an integrative framework. We think it is possible to provide an integrative account by relying on a (pragmatic) communication perspective. In this paper we first describe our model in broad outlines. Subsequently we argue for its viability by showing that this model is a useful guide for observing the reactions of infants to pain and need in especially the context of mother–child interaction, as well as for the relational features that have an impact on the child's reaction. Thus we want to illustrate that the concepts we deem important allow for relevant and non-trivial observations. Our model is integrative, but has its limits. It does not explain the genesis of empathic abilities, nor does it illuminate the ways in which empathic abilities can be furthered. Our model aims at clarifying and integrating the factors that play a role in empathic encounters. This is but a first step towards a comprehensive theory on empathy, yet we believe, a necessary one.
Section snippets
Background
The model we want to propose is based on two general assumptions. First, we assign a formal function to empathy. Roughly: finding a way of responding to the perceived feelings (pain, need, discomfort) of others. This function can be conceived as the way in which an even more general function manifests itself (e.g. achieving affiliation). We will, however, largely ignore the (evolutionary) background of the function we have assigned to empathy. Secondly, we stipulate that finding a way of
Empathy in young children: reactive and parallel emotions
In order to illustrate the process of empathy, we present examples of toddlers’ empathic reactions when their mother is in distress. We use these empathic responses as illustrations of our model, so they are by no means a test of our views. We are the first to acknowledge that in order to test our views we are in need of more stringent observational schemes than the ones we used. Still, we believe that our observations do illuminate the subtleties that are characteristic of the empathic
The role of control systems
We said that in order to arrive at prosocial behaviour persons will have to make use of ways of controlling their feelings. We distinguished between judgements and self-control, while we also noticed that self-control can take the form of positive control and negative control. We will again take a look at the empathic responses of Jenny and Robin in some of the remaining empathy probes in order to see what type of role—if any—the control system play in empathy.
Let us take a look at Jenny at 17
Temperament
Several personality traits like compliance, temperament, and also traits form the big five, in particular agreeableness (sociability) and extraversion are relevant for explaining the stable aspects of empathic behaviour in young children. In the present study we have confined ourselves to temperament and compliance. These traits have been studied in relation to empathic behaviour with toddlers before (Van der Mark, 2001; Van der Mark, Van Ijzendoorn, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, in press a and b).
Attachment
Quality of attachment was assessed at both 17 and 22 months with the Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), a laboratory procedure with three mildly stressful components: the confrontation of the child with an unfamiliar adult, an unfamiliar environment, and two short separations from the mother. The child's pattern of attachment behaviour is classified as insecure-avoidant (A), secure (B), or insecure-resistant (C). Insecure-avoidant children shift their
Conclusion
We have presented an integrative model on empathy and used observations of the empathic acts of young children to illustrate the viability of the model. We attempted to look at empathy and its short-term development from a perspective of communication. This led us to emphasize the role of relationship as well as interactive patterns. Understanding empathy is not solely a matter of understanding individual propensities, but requires that one situate those abilities within a context.
In this paper
Acknowledgments
This study is made possible by a grant of the Dutch organization for scientific research (NWO).
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