ReviewThe biological and behavioral basis of upper limb asymmetries in sensorimotor performance
Introduction
The ability to perform skilled movements of the upper limbs is a defining feature of modern day humans, and has been since the time of their upright standing ancestors some 2.5 million years ago (Bradshaw and Rogers, 1996). Given the gross anatomical symmetry of the arms, however, it is perhaps surprising that the left and right arms did not evolve to have similar degrees of dexterity. Rather, the two arms often demonstrate vast differences in sensorimotor ability, a quality that has been defined as “handedness” and one which has been the subject of intense study within the realms of psychology, neurophysiology and others. The focus of the present paper, therefore, is to review this vast scientific literature with a particular emphasis on upper limb asymmetries in sensorimotor behavior. For reasons that will become more apparent in the section to follow, most research in this area has been biased towards the study of individuals with right-arm preference and, thus, it will generally be beyond the scope of this review to discuss studies involving left-handed individuals. Briefly, however, it should be noted that individuals with left-arm preference appear less lateralized and more variable than their right-handed counterparts, and are not the simple genetic (McManus, 1995) or behavioral inverse (Perelle and Ehrman, 2005).
Section snippets
Right arm biases for movement
While limb asymmetries in motor behavior are evident to some extent in many animal species (see Vallortigara and Rogers, 2005 for a review), humans appear unique in that a clear population level bias exists for using one arm versus the other. Indeed, based largely on self-report questionnaires, it has been estimated that 9 out of 10 individuals are right-handed such that the right arm is preferred over the left when performing tasks such as reaching for a target or manipulating an object (
An enhanced role for the left hemisphere in movement control
In light of the discovery by Broca (1861), and later Wernicke (1874), that the left hemisphere is specialized for various aspects of language, Liepmann (1908) was the first to suggest that asymmetries in motor behavior might also be sub-served by hemispheric processing differences. Specifically, it was hypothesized that the hemisphere contralateral to the preferred arm (most often the left) played an enhanced role for both preferred and non-preferred arm movements. Liepmann (1920) later
Anatomical correlates of handedness
Given the asymmetries in hemispheric function described above, exploration into a potential anatomical substrate for handedness has been undertaken at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. One gross structural component that initially received particular attention is the planum temporale (PT), which is located on the posterior portion of the temporal lobe. Based on postmortem studies, a more abrupt and anterior upward curving of the PT has been reported for the right hemisphere, in contrast
Arm asymmetries in motor output
In line with the functional/anatomical differences outlined above, one of the most traditional approaches to the study of handedness has been the quantification of arm differences in the generation of motor output. A well-known demonstration of this lies in the now classic studies of Woodworth (1899) who assessed the ability of subjects to accurately draw lines of equivalent length with either the preferred or non-preferred hand. In this case, it was found that movements of the preferred right
The dynamic-dominance hypothesis of handedness
Sainburg (2002) first proposed the dynamic-dominance hypothesis of handedness based on several fundamental differences in movement strategy that were observed between the preferred and non-preferred arms of right-handed individuals. Unlike many other behavioral approaches to handedness research, where performance of the non-preferred arm is thought to be inferior for most aspects of movement, this hypothesis proposes that each arm is specialized for a different aspect of movement control.
Open versus closed-loop model of handedness
In contrast to studies of individuals with unilateral brain injury indicating greater arm deficits for left versus right hemisphere damage (Haaland et al., 1977; Haaland and Delaney, 1981; Liepmann, 1908, Liepmann, 1920; Wyke, 1971), more recent behavioral studies by Haaland and Harrington, 1989a, Haaland and Harrington, 1989b, Haaland and Harrington, 1994 and Winstein and Pohl (1995) have supported the notion that each hemisphere may be specialized for different aspects of motor control. In
Upper limb asymmetries in the utilization of sensory feedback
There has been increasing interest over the past several decades in the role that sensory feedback might play in determining arm performance asymmetries. Perhaps the most influential study in this area was conducted by Flowers (1975) who assessed arm performance during a “ballistic” (i.e. relatively feedback independent) tapping task, and a more “corrective” (i.e. relatively feedback dependent) visual aiming task. In the tapping task, subjects were asked to tap the preferred or non-preferred
Summary
The goal of this paper was to review relevant literature regarding the biological and behavioral basis of upper limb sensorimotor behavior. It was shown that, for the majority of individuals, the right arm is preferred over the left when performing many activities of daily living, and that this arm bias likely reflects structural/anatomical differences in the neuromotor system. Despite the preponderance of literature that has focused on right arm motor dominance, however, one novel aspect of
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