The strength and generality of stimulus over-selectivity in simultaneous discrimination procedures

doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2010.12.001

Learning and Motivation

Volume 42, Issue 2, May 2011, Pages 113-122

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2010.12.001 Get rights and content

Abstract

Stimulus over-selectivity refers to behavior being controlled by one element of the environment at the expense of other equally salient aspects of the environment. This is a common problem for many individuals, including those with autism spectrum disorders, and learning difficulties, and presents a considerable problem for information processing in many important situations involving complex cues and environments. Three experiments explored the strength and generality of the over-selectivity effect in non-clinical adults undertaking a cognitively demanding task, by training and testing participants on a two-component trial-and-error discrimination learning task. The over-selectivity effect was found in a variety of test conditions, including when the comparison test stimulus was neutral (Experiment 1), novel (Experiment 2), neutral with no conditioning history (Experiment 3), or when punished during training (Experiments 1, 2 and 3). Such results provide ubiquity to the phenomenon, making it important to investigate further.

Research highlights

▶ We explore the strength and generality of the over-selectivity effect in non-clinical adults. ▶ Participants were trained and tested on a two-component discrimination learning task. ▶ Over-selectivity was found under many training/test conditions. ▶ Results provide ubiquity to the phenomenon of over-selectivity.

Section snippets

Experiment 1

As noted above, the typical procedure for investigating over-selectivity requires participants to choose between elements from previously reinforced and previously punished compound stimuli. Such discrimination performance reflects both a tendency to approach an element at test (the previously reinforced element), as well as a tendency to avoid an element (the previously punished stimulus). It is not clear whether, in this simultaneous discrimination procedure, over-selectivity between elements

Experiment 2

Experiment 2 aimed to replicate the over-selectivity effect using an alternative (non punished) test condition. The prior study reported here attempted to produce an associatively neutral stimulus. Experiment 2 extended this exploration by exploring the impact of employing a novel stimulus as the test comparator.

Experiment 3

Experiment 3, again, aimed to replicate the over-selectivity effect using a third alternative test condition. Re-examining the results of Experiment 1, in the light of Experiment 2, might suggest that the cues used in the former experiment were not really neutral, as a result of their conditioning history. It is, therefore, necessary to create elements with no associative strength and no conditioning history. If conditioning using a stimulus with no associative strength, but which is also not

General discussion

The present research aimed to investigate the relative strength and generality of the over-selectivity effect under a range of test conditions. Such research is important in order to begin understanding the potential theoretical framework of this effect. Previous work, regardless of the population, has typically focused on the standard method identified. This generates the possibility that the level of over-selectivity may be determined not only by learning about reinforced cues, but also by

Acknowledgment

Thanks are due to Bill Roberts for his helpful criticism and advice regarding the statistical analyses reported here.

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Over-selectivity decreases with increased training: A role for within-compound associations
2019, Acta Psychologica
Citation Excerpt :
If the effect reduces over time (Azorlosa & Cicala, 1988; Reynolds & Reed, 2011b; Stout et al., 2003), then the difference in the extent to which the elements of the compound are judged to predict the illness should decrease as training continues. This would serve both to demonstrate an over-selectivity effect in a judgment paradigm of the used to explore human associative learning, and show that the over-selectivity effect reduces with training, which has been noted for rats in overshadowing procedures (Bellingham & Gillette, 1981; Stout et al., 2003), and in human simultaneous discrimination over-selectivity procedure (Reynolds & Reed, 2011a), but not in human judgment procedures. Fifteen participants (5 male and 10 female) aged between 19 and 25 years took part.
Over-selectivity occurs when one element of a complex-stimulus controls behavior at the expense of other equally elements of that stimulus; a phenomenon common in populations subject to cognitive challenge. However, lack of theoretically-based analysis, may have hindered understanding and remediation of the practically-important over-selectivity phenomena. Current studies examined whether associative theories applied to overshadowing, a similar phenomenon in the context of conditioning experiments, could be applied to over-selectivity effects to open theoretical analysis of over-selectivity. Three experiments investigated whether length of training impacts over-selectivity in the same way as overshadowing, which has theoretical implications for understanding that latter phenomenon. All studies employed variants of a judgment procedure in which participants had to judge the relationship between a predictor and an outcome, and the predictors were presented either on their own, or in compound with another predictor. In all studies, the elemental cue (A) was rated similarly to one of the components of the compound (B), but higher than the other component (C). The difference in the extent to which the components of the compound (B and C) were judged as predictors became smaller as levels of training increased, which is an effect that is also seen in discrimination learning studies of over-selectivity. Moreover, it was apparent that as the strength of the within-compound association increased, the level of over-selectivity decreased. These results are similar to those seen for overshadowing, and are discussed with respect to the possible associative mechanisms controlling over-selectivity.
The effects of concurrent cognitive task load on recognising faces displaying emotion
2019, Acta Psychologica
Two independent experiments (N = 30 and N = 24) investigated the effects of concurrent task loads on the recognition of faces displaying emotions. The study aimed to explore a possible resolution for an apparently discrepant finding in the literature regarding the impact of such loads on recognition of facial emotions. Faces displaying different emotions were presented, with or without a concurrent load, until the facial stimuli were correctly labelled to criterion in terms of the displayed emotion. Participants were then presented with elements from the faces (i.e. eyebrows, eyes, and mouth). When participants had to complete the concurrent task as well as the facial recognition task, they did not respond equally to the separate facial elements, and over-selected to the mouth when recognising facial expressions of emotion. The findings relating to the impact of the concurrent load tasks on correct labelling of the facial elements with respect to the emotional faces are discussed in terms of the impact of cognitive load on the production of over-selectivity and the recognition of faces displaying emotions in complex situations, and the implications for those with a developmental disability.
Unpredictability reduces over-selective responding of individuals with ASD who have language impairments
2019, Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Citation Excerpt :
These data replicated the over-selectivity in Experiments 1 and 2 for the short-trained 100% groups (Kelly et al., 2016; Koegel & Wilhelm, 1973; Leader et al., 2009; Reed et al., 2009). Extending training reduced the over-selectivity effect, which has previously been noted for a nonclinical (Reynolds & Reed, 2011a) and ASD (Schover & Newsom, 1976; Schreibman et al., 1977) populations. That partial reinforcement did not greatly reduce over-selectivity suggests that the results reported by Koegel et al. (1979) with their 33% schedule might have more to do with the length of training employed.
Background: The phenomenon whereby behavior becomes controlled by one aspect of the environment at the expense of other equally-salient aspects of the environment (stimulus over-selectivity) is extremely common in many with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, the theoretical mechanisms underpinning over-selectivity and its remediation are not well understood. Four experiments explored whether principles derived from associability accounts of learning, notably the concept of uncertainty, might allow better theoretical understanding of the phenomenon.
Method: Participants with ASD who had language impairments received simultaneous discrimination training (AB+/CD−), and were tested in extinction regarding the degree to which the separate elements (A and B) of the previously reinforced compound (AB+) controlled behavior.
Results: All experiments established the presence of over-selectivity; choosing one stimulus element to a greater-extent than the other. In Experiments 1 and 2, relative to a 100% feedback schedule, over-selectivity reduced when a 50%, but not a 25%, schedule of feedback was used. In Experiment 3, prolonged schedule exposure reduced over-selectivity. In Experiment 4, change from a 100% to a 33% schedule did not reduce over-selectivity.
Conclusions: These results suggest that unpredictability, rather than variability per se, or reinforcement reduction and change, reduces over-selectivity. This suggests that attentional mechanisms, especially uncertainty, may play a role in this phenomenon during its acquisition and remediation.
Interference with facial emotion recognition by verbal but not visual loads
2015, Research in Developmental Disabilities
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Experiment 1 examined the effects of different concurrent tasks on the recognition of facial emotion in order to see if selectively interfering with one set of processes would differentially impact facial emotion recognition. To this end, a verbal counting task as employed as a verbal load in previous investigations (Andersson, Hagman, Talianzadeh, Svedberg, & Larsen, 2002; Reynolds & Reed, 2011), and a visual task previously employed by Reed and Gibson (2005) was also employed. Previous studies have demonstrated that concurrent tasks impact discrimination learning tasks (see Hanley, Pearson, & Young, 1990; Tracy & Robbins, 2008).
The ability to recognize emotions through facial characteristics is critical for social functioning, but is often impaired in those with a developmental or intellectual disability. The current experiments explored the degree to which interfering with the processing capacities of typically-developing individuals would produce a similar inability to recognize emotions through the facial elements of faces displaying particular emotions. It was found that increasing the cognitive load (in an attempt to model learning impairments in a typically developing population) produced deficits in correctly identifying emotions from facial elements. However, this effect was much more pronounced when using a concurrent verbal task than when employing a concurrent visual task, suggesting that there is a substantial verbal element to the labeling and subsequent recognition of emotions. This concurs with previous work conducted with those with developmental disabilities that suggests emotion recognition deficits are connected with language deficits.
Effect of a surprising downward shift in reinforcer value on stimulus over-selectivity in a simultaneous discrimination procedure
2013, Learning and Motivation
Stimulus over-selectivity refers to the phenomenon whereby behavior is controlled by a subset of elements in the environment at the expense of other equally salient aspects of the environment. The experiments explored whether this cue interference effect was reduced following a surprising downward shift in reinforcer value. Experiment 1 revealed that a downward shift in reinforcer value reduced over-selectivity in non-clinical adults under-taking a concurrent cognitive task. Experiments 2 and 3 ruled out a generalization decrement account of this effect; through manipulating the color of the stimuli across phases, we failed to find a reduction in over-selectivity, except for when the nature of the stimuli in one task changed in the context of another one that remained the same. Experiment 4 explored whether a reduction in over-selectivity is a function of the reinforcer and not the stimuli and failed to find a differential effect of reinforcer quality. Taken together, the results extend earlier findings of an attenuation of blocking following a surprise downward shift in reinforcer value to an over-selectivity paradigm in human subjects. Such work has important implications for remediation of over-selectivity.
Event related potential analysis of stimulus over-selectivity
2012, Research in Developmental Disabilities
Citation Excerpt :
The combination of stimulus elements that were reinforced were randomized, using the E-prime software, across participants to avoid any of the results being the product of some stimuli being intrinsically more salient than others. A concurrent load task was presented as previous reports have demonstrated that over-selectivity emerges in this population with such a task (see Reynolds & Reed, 2011). Participants were required to subtract seven continuously throughout the whole study, starting from a random five digit number (e.g., 76,654).
Stimulus over-selectivity is a phenomenon often displayed by individuals with many forms of developmental and intellectual disabilities, and also by individuals lacking such disabilities who are under cognitive strain. It occurs when only one of potentially many aspects of the environment controls behavior. Adult participants were trained and tested on a trial-and-error discrimination learning task, with a concurrent memory load task, and displayed over-selectivity. Participants’ brain responses were also monitored and analyzed using an electroencephalogram (EEG). The results demonstrated a significant difference between the event-related potentials generated to the over-selected and under-selected stimuli. Although there was no difference in the P300a wave between over- and under-selected stimuli, the P300b wave was associated with over-selected, but not under-selected stimuli. This finding suggests that, in this context, the under-selected stimulus did not elicit ERP activity typically associated with novelty, which, in turn, suggests that over-selectivity may not be entirely an attention-based effect.

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The strength and generality of stimulus over-selectivity in simultaneous discrimination procedures

Abstract

Research highlights

Section snippets

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

Experiment 3

General discussion

Acknowledgment

Research in Developmental Disabilities

Research in Developmental Disabilities

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Behaviour, Research and Therapy

Learning and Motivation

Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities

Brain and Cognition

The Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from the Asperger Syndrome/high functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Teaching children to spell: Decreasing consonant cluster errors by eliminating selective stimulus control

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

Defensive reactions and exploratory behaviour in rats

Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology

Demonstrations of neophobia and enhanced neophobia in the albino rat

Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology

Stimulus overselectivity in discrimination learning

Eye tracking assessment of stimulus overselectivity in individuals with mental retardation

Experimental Analysis of Human Behavior Bulletin

Reinforcer frequency and restricted stimulus control

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior