Elsevier

Journal of Vocational Behavior

Volume 89, August 2015, Pages 162-171
Journal of Vocational Behavior

Work values and the transition to work life: A longitudinal study

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.06.001Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Intrinsic work values related to a higher level of person–job fit two years later.

  • Rewards work values predicted lower chances of being unemployed later on.

  • Security work values predicted higher chances of being unemployed two years later.

Abstract

Research on career development has shown that work values play a key motivational role in job selection and career development. In the context of the current economic crisis, it is of particular relevance to examine the role of work values for employment in the transition from school to work. This longitudinal study examined the role of intrinsic (perceived importance of having a job that is interesting and matches one's own competences), rewards (having a good salary and high chance for promotion), and security (having a stable job) work values on subsequent employment status and person–job fit (how an individual's job matches one's own characteristics such as education and job preferences). Finnish participants reported their work values and background variables via questionnaire at ages 20 and 23 (Ns = 348 and 415 respectively). Intrinsic work values predicted a higher degree of person–job fit two years later. Rewards work values predicted lower chances of being unemployed; and security work values predicted higher chances of being unemployed later on. Family socio-economic status (SES) was not related to employment outcomes in this Finnish sample.

Introduction

The global economic crisis poses greater challenges for young adults in establishing their career (e.g. Arnett, 2004, Johnson et al., 2012). The transition from school to work has lengthened considerably in the past decades, with prolonged education, more unstable work conditions and delayed access to the job market (Salmela-Aro, 2012). The current Finnish statistics among young adults also show some worrying facts: unemployment rates of people between 25–34 years of age are about 26% (Statistics Finland Population, 2013). Upward and downward mobility of individuals is associated with career development during young adulthood, and hence, a successful transition to employment has long-term consequences for development (Heckhausen, 2002). In this study we consider young adults' work values as a potential personal resource that could shape individuals' career paths and access to employment across the school-to-work transition. Work values refer to what individuals consider important in their jobs (Jin and Rounds, 2012, Mortimer and Lorence, 1979). Research on career development has shown that work values play a key motivational role in job selection and vocational development (Balsamo et al., 2013, Judge and Bretz, 1992, Super, 1980; Watt et al., 2012). Whether work values are associated with markers of successful transition to employment (such as being employed) and quality of job (such as the degree of person–job fit) is not well-established in the literature. Drawing on a sample of Finnish young adults, this longitudinal study aims to fill in these research gaps.

Our main research question is whether work values are predictors of a successful school-to-work transition, defined in terms of getting a job (being employed versus unemployed) and the degree of person–job fit. A well fit job provides a good match for employees' personal values and preferences, and also for their knowledge skills and abilities (Cable and DeRue, 2002, Edwards et al., 2006, Scroggins, 2007, Vogel and Feldman, 2009). We developed our hypothesis based on research on work values (Johnson and Mortimer, 2011, Mortimer and Lorence, 1979), self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000, Sheldon and Elliot, 1999) and job crafting (Bakker et al., 2012, Wrzesniewski and Dutton, 2001). Given that most research on work values has been conducted in the US, the Finnish context will provide valuable insights into the role of a different social reality, a strong welfare system, concerning this topic. In strong welfare systems, it is likely that the links between family socio-economic background and youth employment outcomes are weaker, given the strong social support and tuition-free education offered by the state.

The most widely used classification of work values has been the classic distinction between intrinsic (focused on opportunities for skill use, self-direction and enjoyment derived from doing the job) and extrinsic work values (focused on external rewards, such as having a job that provides a good income or security; see Jin & Rounds, 2012 for a review). Longitudinal studies on work value outcomes have shown that both intrinsic and extrinsic work values predicted the type of rewards individuals subsequently received in their jobs (Johnson and Monserud, 2010, Johnson and Mortimer, 2011, Lindsay and Knox, 1984). Intrinsic work values predicted higher intrinsic work rewards, such as working in interesting jobs, enjoying more autonomy and having learning opportunities at work. Extrinsic work values were related to extrinsic rewards, such as job security and higher income (Johnson and Monserud, 2010, Lindsay and Knox, 1984). However, the association between extrinsic work values and higher salary seemed to be explained largely by the number of work hours (Johnson & Mortimer, 2011).

Work values are also important antecedents of the types of choices individuals make in their paths to work. For example, valuing helping others predicted teenagers' plans to enter human service or health-related professions, while valuing occupational prestige predicted not aspiring to a human service occupation (Eccles, 1994). Ambition value (the importance placed on being challenged in a job and getting ahead) at age 16 was positively related to adult job status and earnings at age 34 (Ashby & Schoon, 2010). Hence, in the long run, work values seem to direct individuals towards jobs that match those values over the course of one's career development. Whether work values help youth to weather the transition from school to work, in terms of success in employment, has not been the focus of any published work. Previous research has indicated that intrinsic work values facilitate a successful school-to-work transition in terms of keeping higher levels of work engagement (Sortheix, Dietrich, Chow, & Salmela-Aro, 2013). However, to the best of our knowledge, whether intrinsic work values could have consequences in terms of employment and finding a well-fit job has not been analyzed.

Person–job fit refers to the match between personal and job characteristics and comprises two aspects which are generally combined into an overall indicator (Cable and DeRue, 2002, Scroggins, 2007, Vogel and Feldman, 2009). The first aspect indicates the match between job demands and personal competences and abilities (Edwards, 1991). The second aspect of a person–job fit refers to jobs which meet employees' desires, preference and values, and has been the focus of studies on well-being and satisfaction at work (Caplan, 1987, Judge and Bretz, 1992, Kristof‐Brown et al., 2005, Vogel and Feldman, 2009). Results showed that intrinsic work values were concurrently positively related to person–job fit, as indicated by having a job related to one's education (Johnson et al., 2012). To extend this finding, it would be important to examine whether intrinsic work values would predict person–job fit longitudinally.

Based on self-determination theory (SDT, Deci and Ryan, 2000, Ryan and Deci, 2000), we argue that intrinsic and extrinsic work values provide different sources of motivation for a successful transition to employment. According to SDT, when the motivation for work comes from the enjoyment and interest of the tasks themselves, intrinsic forms of motivation are reflected. When work is done because of the its importance and the fact it is in accordance with one's values and skills, identified forms of motivation are shown (see also, Gagné et al., 2014, Gagné and Deci, 2005). Intrinsic and identified motivations reflect more autonomous (versus controlled) motivation which fosters the levels of investment towards work (Dietrich et al., 2013, Sheldon and Elliot, 1999) and provides sustainable energy that moves individuals towards their goals based on interest and enjoyment (Deci and Ryan, 2000, Sheldon and Elliot, 1999). In a similar vein, intrinsic work values motivate individuals through the enjoyment and satisfaction obtained from jobs. Intrinsic motivation has also been linked to individuals' capacities to self-manage their careers and to engage in proactive behavior (Quigley & Tymon, 2006). Young people's intrinsic work values may direct individuals to search for jobs that fit their competences and skills with persistence and energy. Also, intrinsic work values could also serve as antecedent motivation for job crafting. Job crafting is a concept that refers to the employee's capacity to job redesign (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). In job crafting, employees independently modify aspects of their jobs to improve the fit between the job´s characteristics and their own needs, abilities, and preferences. We expect that higher intrinsic work values will motivate young adults to search for jobs that are intrinsically rewarding and in accordance with their competences and abilities (i.e. a higher person–job fit). More importantly, we expect that young adults who hold higher intrinsic work values are better equipped to craft their jobs to fit their values and will thus enjoy a higher person–job fit.

Extrinsic work values, on the other hand, motivate individuals to pursue behavior based on instrumental reasons. Research has shown that such controlled or extrinsic motivation is related to higher anxiety, lower well-being and higher burnout (Sheldon and Elliot, 1998, van Beek et al., 2011). In the work context, results indicate that extrinsic work value orientation related negatively to job vitality, job satisfaction and dedication, and increased work-family conflict and turnover intentions (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). The focus of extrinsic work values on external rewards or security aspects of the job drives individuals to seek out jobs based on salary and working conditions rather than their own interests and abilities. Accordingly, we do not expect work values focused on rewards or security to predict person–job fit.

Longitudinal research examining how the experience of unemployment influenced subsequent work values has found that unemployment predicted decreases in extrinsic (Johnson et al., 2012) and intrinsic work values (Krahn & Galambos, 2014). However, less is known about how early work values (which are established before individuals enter the labor force) would affect subsequent employment status across the transition from school to work. We have therefore also examined whether intrinsic and extrinsic work values would predict the chances of being unemployed (versus employed) two years later.

In this study we distinguish between rewards and security work values because the guiding motivation underlying these two values could have different consequences for employment (Schwartz, 1992; see also, Sortheix et al., 2013). Rewards work values are based on achievement and power motivations focusing on monetary retribution, being promoted, and gaining higher status at work (Schwartz, 1992). Security work values are conceptually related to Schwartz's security values. Security values are related to stability- and safety-seeking, and are based on prevention forms of regulation, which may drive individuals away from anxiety-provoking situations (Leikas, Lönnqvist, Verkasalo, & Lindeman, 2009). Thus, security work values could hold back young individuals from adapting flexibly to the labor market, although a flexible approach would increase their chances of finding employment. This study was conducted during an economic crisis in Finland, a time which generated many challenges and changes in workplaces. Looking for a job in a context of uncertainty and economic crisis requires individuals to face increasing challenges, and security work values might not promote active job seeking or other strategies that would help young adults find a job (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, Lens, & De Witte, 2010). Rewards work values, on the other hand, are concerned with advancements and accomplishments. People with a promotion focus choose goal pursuit strategies, which may foster active job seeking (Koen et al., 2010, Van Hooft et al., 2012). Under the current economic crisis a motivation which reflects higher flexibility, and the capacity to deal with change would offer an advantage to deal with the difficult task of finding a first job. Hence, we propose that the importance placed on rewards work values will increase the chances of being employed, while the importance placed on security work values will increase the chances of being unemployed in the transition to work life. Regarding the role of intrinsic work values for employment, as argued above these values provide sustained motivation for goal pursuit, including work goals (Dietrich et al., 2013) which could help individuals striving to find a job. In fact, autonomous motivation for job search behavior predicted active job search above other motivational factors, such as the expectation of finding a job or job search optimism (Vansteenkiste, Lens, De Witte, De Witte, & Deci, 2004).

Section snippets

The role of context

The transition towards work occurs in the interaction between the developing individual and the changing physical, social and cultural context (Mortimer and Shanahan, 2006, Schoon and Silbereisen, 2009). One important contextual variable studied in relation to work values and unemployment is family socio-economic status (family SES Johnson and Mortimer, 2011, Johnson et al., 2012). Referring to Fig. 1, in our analyses, we consider the interplay of these variables: gender, family SES at 9th

Aims of the study

The overarching goal of this study is to examine the role of work values in the job attainment process across the transition to work life. More specifically, based on SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2000, Ryan and Deci, 2000), we propose that stronger intrinsic work values prospectively predict better person–job fit (hypothesis 1a) and a lower chance of being unemployed (hypothesis 1b). Similarly, rewards work values will be associated with a lower chance of being unemployed two years later (hypothesis

Participants and procedure

The data for this study were from an ongoing longitudinal project, namely, the Finnish Educational Transitions Study (FinEdu). The study began in 2004, and sampled 707 9th graders (age 15) from all the nine comprehensive schools in a medium-sized city in Middle Finland, and these participants have been tracked by follow-up questionnaires at six measurement points since then. This study covers only the last two measurement points (i.e., 2008 and 2011) of the FinEdu study and focuses on those

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 shows the mean values, standard deviations and correlations between the variables used in our analyses at Time 1 and Time 2. Vocational track participants were 128 (31%); academic participants 239 (57.6%); and those who did not report their track 48 (11.6%) as reported in 2005.

Measurement models for work values and person–job fit

We specified two confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models, one for work values and another for person–job fit. As for work values, we estimated a model of three interrelated latent variables, namely, intrinsic,

Discussion

Previous research has shown that work values were associated with work outcomes, such as degree of autonomy, decision making opportunity and job training, above and beyond educational attainment (Johnson, 2001, Johnson and Elder, 2002, Johnson and Mortimer, 2011, Mortimer and Lorence, 1979). This study adds to the literature by showing that intrinsic and extrinsic (rewards and security) work values were associated with different work-related outcomes across the transition from school to work,

Further research

We argued that work values provided different motivations for job seeking in the transition from study to work. We reasoned that rewards and security work values are guided by approach and avoidance motivation respectively. Future research could examine how different work values are associated with promotion-focused strategies ( e.g., contacting potential work places and job agencies) or prevention-focused strategies (e.g., abstaining from facing risk and uncertainty) in the job seeking process.

Limitations

The characteristics of our Finnish sample prevent us from making generalizations about our findings in other populations. As discussed above, characteristics of the Finnish welfare regime, and universities, such as a higher age at entry to university, tuition-free studies, and the difficulty in gaining admission to university, may mean that some results would have been different in countries with a different welfare and education system or where individuals graduate earlier. Nevertheless, this

Practical implications and conclusions

The results of this study have practical implications for young adults' career development. These results suggest that the interplay between personal motivations and the opportunities available in the context influences the associations between work values and work outcomes. In times of economic crisis and uncertainty having a job might be a matter of need rather than choice even in a country with high levels of development and freedom as Finland (Blustein, 2011). Security work values might

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the Academy of Finland grant # 273872, the Jacobs Foundation and the Ella and Georg Ehrnrooth Foundation.

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