Graduated Driver Licensing Research, 2010-Present
Introduction
Graduated driver licensing (GDL), a phase-in system designed to protect young beginners while they are gaining driving experience, began to be introduced in North America in the mid-1990s. GDL has replaced laws that generally allowed quick and easy access to full driving privileges; the core elements are an extended learner period during which driving must be supervised, and a restricted phase for some period after initial licensure, with limits on driving at night and carrying passengers. All jurisdictions in Canada and the United States have versions of GDL in effect, and many have substantially upgraded their original GDL legislation. In the United States, where most of the GDL research has been done, 41 states and the District of Columbia have enacted all of the core elements of GDL, with considerable variation in the comprehensiveness of these requirements. GDL is acknowledged to have played a lead role in the large declines in per capita crash rates of young teenagers that have occurred in the past 15 years (Ferguson et al., 2007, Shults and Ali, 2010). In 1995, prior to the widespread introduction of GDL, there were 2,667 drivers ages 16–17 involved in fatal crashes. In 2010, there were 1,150 (FARS, 2012), representing a decrease of 57% over this period. However, there remains a substantial teenage driver problem, and many teens die each year as passengers in motor vehicles, often driven by other teens. Additional work is needed to further reduce deaths and injuries in this vulnerable population.
Good research can help in this effort, pointing the way toward evidence-based policies. The GDL movement has spurred a vast amount of research. In attempting to keep researchers and policy makers current regarding the existing state of knowledge and promising new approaches, GDL research reviews have been published covering the years 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 (Hedlund and Compton, 2004, Hedlund and Compton, 2005, Hedlund et al., 2006) and most recently, 2007 to early 2010 (Williams & Shults, 2010). The surge in research has continued and the present review covers the period from early 2010 to mid-2012, including works in progress.
In this review, central GDL issues and information needs are identified, and the recent literature is evaluated in terms of the extent to which it addresses and answers the questions posed. This review structure provides a means for summarizing present knowledge, highlighting proven approaches, and a way to spotlight research gaps and areas in which clarification of research findings is needed. In the process, attention is given to the areas identified by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) Subcommittee on Young Drivers (2009) as most in need of research. They are:
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advancing the science base for programs and policies to reduce teenage driving risk;
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learning to drive safely—how competence develops;
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teenage driving exposure issues (e.g., how many miles teenagers drive, as well as contextual factors such as time of day, passenger presence, trip purpose, traffic and weather);
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parenting issues—how parents influence teenage driving; and
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passenger issues—how passengers influence teenage driving and crash risk.
Advancing the science base is applicable to GDL research in general. GDL is a solidly evidence-based strategy, but there is uncertainty about the optimal structure of its components (Foss, 2007). Building on the current state of knowledge about GDL in ways that will enhance its safety benefits is possible only through high-quality research that addresses appropriate questions.
Since the most recent review (Williams & Shults, 2010), two developments are notable. One is the increased availability of naturalistic studies of teen driving, in which cameras and other instrumentation record what is taking place in vehicles. Prior knowledge about in-vehicle activities has largely been based on self-reports or observations from outside the vehicle. The second development is the introduction of GDL features in Australian states that heretofore have been found only in North America and New Zealand. There are significant differences in Australian GDL systems, however. Most notably, licensing ages are higher and provisional license phases last longer. These differences will make it possible to study and compare a greater variety of GDL formats, although related research from Australia is only beginning to become available.
Section snippets
Scope of the review
Articles published between January 1, 2010 and June 1, 2012 are included, along with works in progress. Previously published articles are occasionally referred to if they help to clarify current research findings, or if they were not incorporated in prior reviews. The review was restricted largely to the countries with graduated licensing systems: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. Only topics with direct relevance to GDL are included. This means that studies of worthy
What is the effect of GDL on crashes for different age groups?
Licensing ages vary within and across countries, and thus GDL has been applied to novices of different ages. For example, in the United States, where almost all of the recent GDL evaluations have been carried out, minimum learner ages are generally 15–16, restricted license ages are 16-16½, and full license ages 16½-18. In Canada, the minimum learner age is generally 16, restricted license age 16-16¾, and full license age 17½-18¼. However, in the majority of provinces, “time discounts” for
The learner stage
Extending the learner permit period and requiring a minimum number of hours of supervised driving to take place are intended to better prepare beginners for independent driving. Currently in the United States, 47 of the 51 jurisdictions require new drivers to hold a learner permit for a period ranging from 6 to 12 months; 42 mandate at least 30 hours of supervised practice. It is well established that this is a period in which there is low crash risk, and that was recently confirmed in a New
The provisional license period
During the provisional period, it is well established that the highest crash rate occurs during the first month and that there is a rapid decrease in crashes over the following several months. This trend is largely based on data collected before GDL was introduced (e.g., Mayhew, Simpson, & Pak, 2003). Restrictions on high risk driving during the provisional phase are designed to deal with this elevated crash profile, but data from North Carolina indicate that a highly similar crash curve exists
Risk factors for provisional license holders
Late-night driving and passenger presence, especially teen friends, are the risk factors traditionally addressed in GDL systems. Distraction in general has also become a major concern, although interventions to address distraction other than passenger restrictions and cell phone/texting bans are rare, and there has been little research addressing the specific effects of cell phone/texting bans on teenagers. The only known studies were done in North Carolina, where a cell phone ban was
Effects of night and passenger restrictions
In the United States, 50 of the 51 jurisdictions have nighttime driving restrictions in the provisional stage with starting times generally ranging from 9 p.m. to 1 a.m. (one starts at sunset). Forty-five have passenger restrictions that vary in numbers of passengers allowed and ages covered. Night and passenger restrictions are well accepted by parents. Teenagers accept them also, although with less enthusiasm for passenger restrictions. National probability-based surveys have found that 90%
Improving compliance with restrictions; fostering safe driving practices
There are various ways to try to promote safe driving by teenagers, including encouraging them to follow GDL rules. In a survey of U.S. pediatricians, 89% said they did some counseling about driving. Forty-one percent said they discussed the dangers of transporting teen passengers, 23% talked about the value of parents setting limits, 21% about night driving, and 13% about GDL (Weiss, O'Neill, Shope, O'Connor, & Levin, 2012). The effect of such counseling on the behavior of teens and parents is
Discussion and conclusions
The introduction of graduated driver licensing represents one of the most important public health movements that has ever occurred in North America. It has had a major impact in reducing young driver crashes and associated injuries to themselves and others. In the process, many research articles have been published, documenting the effects of GDL and the contribution of its various components, and the superior benefits resulting from comprehensive systems have been well established. The number
Acknowledgments
This review was supported by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. The authors thank Eric Williams-Bergen for conducting the literature search, and Robert Foss, Ruth Shults, and Barry Watson for reviewing an earlier draft and providing valuable comments and suggestions.
Allan F. Williams is an independent highway safety consultant USA.
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Cited by (0)
Allan F. Williams is an independent highway safety consultant USA.
Brian C. Tefft and Jurek G. Grabowski are with the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, USA.