Promoting an equitable and supportive school climate in high schools: The role of school organizational health and staff burnout

Abstract

In response to persistent racial disparities in academic and behavioral outcomes between Black and White students, equitable school climate has drawn attention as a potential target for school reform. This study examined differences in Black and White students' experiences of school climate and explored whether indicators of school organizational health and staff burnout moderated differences in students' school experiences by race. Utilizing hierarchical linear modeling with a sample of 18,397 Black students (n = 6228) and White students (n = 12,169) and 2391 school staff in 53 schools, we found a consistent pattern of racial inequalities, such that Black students reported less positive experiences than White students across three indicators of school climate (caring γ = − 0.08, p < .001; equity γ = − 0.05, p = .007; and engagement γ = − 0.05, p < .001). In addition, we found significant, positive associations between aggregated staff-report of school organizational health and student-reported school climate (e.g., staff affiliation and student-perceived equity, γ = 0.07, p < .001). Surprisingly, a number of school organizational health indicators were more strongly associated with positive perceptions of school climate among White students than Black students, translating into greater racial disparities in perceived school climate at schools with greater organizational health (e.g., supportive leadership by race on student-perceived engagement, γ = − 0.03, p = .042). We also found negative associations between staff-reported burnout and students' experience of equity, such that the racial gap was smaller in schools with high ratings of burnout (γ = 0.04, p = .002). These findings have implications for educators and education researchers interested in promoting school social contexts that equitably support student engagement and success.

Introduction

Attention to the issue of equitable school climate has emerged as educators endeavor to improve school climate for all students (Ross, 2013). In fact, school equity (i.e., respect for diversity, equitable treatment, and cultural inclusion) is considered a central dimension within several school climate frameworks (e.g., National School Climate Council (e.g., Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009); United States Department of Education's Safe and Supportive Schools (e.g., Bradshaw, Waasdorp, Debnam, & Lindstrom Johnson, 2014)). Equitable school climate may also be understood as the equitable distribution of students' experience of supportive school climate as a resource across diverse student groups. Relatively limited research has examined racial inequality in students' experience of supportive school climate; however, the available research suggests that Black students may experience less supportive relationships, perceive less equitable treatment, and feel less engaged at school relative to their White peers (Hughes and Kwok, 2007, Mattison and Aber, 2007).

One factor that may contribute to racial inequality in students' experience of school climate is school organizational health, which is defined as the capacity of schools to successfully adapt to a continually changing environment and new challenges (Hoy et al., 1991, Miles, 1965). Several studies have examined the influence of school organizational health on teacher stress, job satisfaction, and teacher efficacy (Bevans et al., 2007, Hoy and Woolfolk, 1993, Mehta et al., 2013) as well as on teachers' perceptions of students' behavior and teachers' use of disciplinary sanctions (Pas and Bradshaw, 2013, Pas et al., 2012). Unfortunately, few studies have examined the association between school organizational health and racial inequalities in students' school experiences.

The current study builds upon the school climate literature by examining whether staff perceptions of school organizational health and burnout differentially influence Black relative to White students' experience of school climate. We hypothesized that significant racial gaps would be found in student report of school climate, such that Black students would report lower ratings of supportive school climate relative to White students and that school organizational health and staff burnout would moderate these racial inequalities. Specifically, we expected school organizational health to be associated with fewer racial inequalities and staff burnout to be associated with greater inequalities. The issue of equitable school climate has implications for educational policies and programs aiming to enhance student engagement and reduce racial disparities in Black students' academic, social–emotional, and disciplinary outcomes at school (Aud et al., 2012, Latzman et al., 2011, Skiba et al., 2011). Therefore, it is critical that educators uncover factors that could help to promote equitable school climate.

Student engagement has been conceptualized as a multidimensional outcome of students' dynamic, reciprocal interactions within supportive relationships and social contexts that drive motivation (Connell and Wellborn, 1991, Skinner and Pitzer, 2012). Central to this concept of engagement is its focus on process; theory suggests that when students' core psychological needs are met by supportive school climates, students will in turn engage productively in school activities, but if their basic needs are unmet, students will either withdraw or act out (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). In fact, research confirms that schools with supportive climates tend to have more motivated students (Eccles et al., 1993), less student discipline problems (Cohen & Geier, 2010), and higher social–emotional wellbeing (Ruus et al., 2007, Shochet et al., 2006). Applying a disparities framework (Dankwa-Mullan et al., 2010) to this process, it follows that the inequitable distribution of students' experience of support at school could lead to disparities in student engagement and related behavioral and social–emotional outcomes. Indeed, research suggests not only that Black youth report lower ratings of support and connectedness relative to other marginalized groups (Furlong et al., 2011, Hughes and Kwok, 2007) but also that lower levels of support among Black students may contribute to racial disparities in engagement (Bottiani, Bradshaw, & Mendelson, submitted for publication).

Supportive relationships with adults at school may be particularly important for Black youth (Decker, Dona, & Christenson, 2007), who must navigate divergent cultural and ecological terrain between school, home, and neighborhood and cope with experiences of prejudice and differential treatment at school (Gay, 2002). Consistent, extensive evidence documenting racial gaps in school discipline exposure among Black youth in particular (e.g., Porowski et al., 2014, Skiba et al., 2011) indicates that Black youth may experience differential treatment by school personnel. Furthermore, research suggests that perceptions of differential treatment and discrimination by school staff among Black youth may contribute to poor academic and behavioral outcomes (e.g., Bogart et al., 2013, Wong et al., 2003), including deterring student engagement (Bingham and Okagaki, 2012, Dotterer et al., 2009). Experiences of discrimination in the high school context during early and middle adolescence among Black youth may be particularly harmful, as this a key period when young people are beginning to develop their sense of racial identity (Phinney, 1989, Seaton et al., 2009). Conversely, research on school climate suggests that students' perceptions of equitable treatment and cultural inclusiveness at school may positively influence students' affective and academic engagement (Debnam, Lindstrom Johnson, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2014).

An important consideration regarding racial inequality in students' experience of school climate is school organizational health. Considered a multidimensional construct, school organizational health often is considered to include staff perceptions of collegial leadership, trusting and supportive relationships between coworkers (Hoy et al., 1991, Hoy and Woolfolk, 1993, Mehta et al., 2013), and personal connectedness to the school (O'Brennan, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2014). However, staff burnout is inversely associated with school organizational health (Hakanen et al., 2006, Shernoff et al., 2011). Consistent with research linking school organizational health with lower teacher stress, elevated efficacy, and more positive perceptions of students (Hoy and Woolfolk, 1993, Mehta et al., 2013, Pas and Bradshaw, 2013), it seems reasonable that school organizational health would also enhance staff capacity to effectively navigate ecological and cultural differences to support Black students. Thus, it follows that gaps would be smaller in schools with high, as compared to low, school organizational health, and larger in schools with high burnout. In the sections that follow, we more closely consider three indicators related to school organizational health (i.e., personal connectedness, staff affiliation, supportive leadership, and burnout) and how they may be associated with racial inequity in students' school experiences.

Staff personal connectedness to school is often thought of as a composite of feelings of pride and belonging at the school, of being respected by others, and of overall job satisfaction (Butler, 2012, Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2011). Staff experiencing low satisfaction also tend to feel anxious, worried, or depressed (Ho & Au, 2006); conversely, staff experiencing high job satisfaction demonstrate greater commitment and motivation to teach (Barnabé and Burns, 1994, Feather and Rauter, 2004). Consistent with theories of motivation (e.g., Connell and Wellborn, 1991, Maslow, 1943), fulfillment of school staff members' basic needs for security, belonging, and respect may encourage school staff to develop and maintain higher-order competencies necessary to be equitable in effectively teaching and supporting all students. Specifically, researchers in the field of cross-cultural competence and multicultural education suggest that meta-cognitive, reflexive, and reflective practices (e.g., mindfulness and cognitive flex) are necessary to tap cultural assets and respond effectively to ecological divides present in diverse settings (Ang et al., 2007, Dray and Wisneski, 2011, Paris, 2012). Therefore, it is possible that fulfillment of teachers' core psychological need for connectedness is an essential foundation for students' equitable school experiences.

School staff members' collegial affiliation with one another also is a salient aspect of school organizational health (Hoy et al., 1991). School staff who share openly with their peers also are inclined to be more open to professional development and innovation (Collie, Shapka, & Perry, 2011). Research also shows that when staff get along well, trust, respect, and help one another, they have higher levels of efficacy, meaning they feel more comfortable and confident in handling challenges in their classrooms (Pas et al., 2012). Efficacy, in turn, has been associated with observed classroom culturally responsive practices (Debnam, Pas, Bottiani, Cash, & Bradshaw, submitted for publication). Thus, it follows that staff perceptions of collegiality may be related to their use of strategies that promote equitable school climate.

School staff members' relationships with principals and other administrators also have been shown to be a key indicator of school organizational health (Hoy et al., 1991) and relevant to school equity (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2005). As with staff affiliation, research shows that staff who feel supported by their principal are more confident and comfortable adapting to student behavior and needs (Pas et al., 2012), less stressed, and more satisfied at work; indeed, supportive leadership has been found to be particularly salient for these teacher outcomes in low-income, urban schools (Mehta et al., 2013). Consequently, it is possible that, as teachers feel more supported by their principals, they have greater emotional and cognitive reserve and confidence to adapt to diverse student needs, thereby fostering greater equity in the students' school experiences.

Burnout is a construct closely associated with stress; it pertains to individuals' compromised abilities to effectively carry out the job as a result of work-related stress (Betoret, 2009, Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2011). A defining feature of staff burnout is emotional exhaustion (Tsouloupas, Carson, Matthews, Grawitch, & Barber, 2010). When teachers become emotionally exhausted, they lose the ability to provide students with support (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Accordingly, it seems likely that burnout would also limit teachers' capacity to respond supportively across diverse student perspectives. Research suggests that stress and stress-related biological mechanisms can bring out cognitive biases such as stereotyping (Friedland, Keinan, & Tytiun, 1999) or racial prejudice (Terbeck et al., 2012). Recent experimental research on implicit stereotype-based biases against stigmatized groups highlights the mediating role of psychological stress (Kang, Gray, & Dovidio, 2014). It is plausible, therefore, that burnout could elicit unconscious cognitive biases among staff, which in turn could negatively influence staff interactions with Black students.

To address gaps in the literature on school-level determinants of equitable school climate, this study examined associations between Black students' perceptions of caring, equity, and engagement, and staff-reported indicators related to school organizational health (i.e., personal connectedness, staff affiliation, supportive leadership, and burnout). We used two-level hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) with cross-sectional data from 2391 school staff and 18,397 Black and White students in 53 high schools to test three central hypotheses. First, we hypothesized that Black youth would report experiencing caring, equity, and engagement at lower levels than White youth and that these gaps would persist even after controlling for both student- and school-level indicators of socioeconomic status and other potential confounds (i.e., gender and age). Second, we hypothesized that, regardless of race, student report of equity, caring, and engagement would be positively associated with school organizational health and negatively associated with staff burnout. Third, we hypothesized that school organizational health and staff burnout would also significantly moderate the magnitude of racial gaps in students' experience of caring, equity, and engagement. To test this third hypothesis of school-level moderation of racial inequalities, we examined cross-level interactions of school organizational health and burnout on the associations between Black race and student perceptions of caring, equity, and engagement while controlling for other potential influences at the school-level. We anticipated that high staff-reported school organizational health would be associated with smaller gaps between Black and White youth, whereas high staff burnout would be associated with greater inequalities. This line of research has important implications for addressing disparities in academic and behavioral outcomes among high school students, where dropout and school failure have significant public health and economic impacts (Freudenberg & Ruglis, 2007).