Student–teacher relationship quality and academic adjustment in upper elementary school: The role of student personality

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Abstract

This study tested a theoretical model considering students' personality traits as predictors of student–teacher relationship quality (closeness, conflict, and dependency), the effects of student–teacher relationship quality on students' math and reading achievement, and the mediating role of students' motivational beliefs on the association between student–teacher relationship quality and achievement in upper elementary school. Surveys and tests were conducted among a nationally representative Dutch sample of 8545 sixth-grade students and their teachers in 395 schools. Structural equation models were used to test direct and indirect effects. Support was found for a model that identified conscientiousness and agreeableness as predictors of close, nonconflictual relationships, and neuroticism as a predictor of dependent and conflictual relationships. Extraversion was associated with higher levels of closeness and conflict, and autonomy was only associated with lower levels of dependency. Students' motivational beliefs mediated the effects of dependency and student-reported closeness on reading and math achievement.

Introduction

The upper elementary school years bring many new challenges and risks to young students' social, emotional, and academic lives. During this “grace period” between the securities of infancy and the stresses of puberty, students gradually become more independent from their teacher (Ang et al., 2008, Lynch and Cicchetti, 1997), establish a sense of personal identity and competence (Baker, 1999), and face increasingly demanding academic tasks and social competition (Eccles et al., 1993). Many students negotiate this period without too many problems. For others, however, the challenges of upper elementary school may cause the onset of a downturn in competence-related behaviors and motivation that may prevent them from succeeding academically (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002).

Recent research suggests that the quality of student–teacher relationships may play a crucial role in helping students to navigate the challenges of the upper elementary school years (Hamre and Pianta, 2001, Malecki and Demaray, 2006, Roorda et al., 2011, Wang and Eccles, 2012). This quality is characteristically operationalized as a three-dimensional construct reflecting the level of closeness (encompassing warmth, support, and open communication), conflict (including discordance and negativity), and dependency (including possessiveness and overreliance on the teacher) in the student–teacher relationship (see Pianta, 1994, Pianta et al., 1995). When there are high levels of closeness and low levels of conflict and dependency, students are more likely to be motivated to succeed, to feel successful in educational pursuits and, consequently, to perform better than students without such supports (Baker, 2006, Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Roeser et al., 1996, Wentzel, 1998). Additionally, positive student–teacher relationships may render older students far less vulnerable to antisocial behavior, low self-esteem, and adjustment problems in later life (Herrero et al., 2006, Wentzel, 2002). Student–teacher relationships may thus be protective against declines in both academic and socio-emotional functioning during this critical transition period.

Despite the importance of the student–teacher relationship quality for upper elementary students' school adjustment, relatively little is known about its predictors and consequences during this period. Thus far, studies investigating the link between student–teacher relationship quality and older students' academic adjustment have been typically focusing on teacher support. Less emphasis has been placed, however, on the myriad factors involved in student–teacher conflict and dependency, and the potential effects of these negative relationship patterns on students' academic success. This lack of research is unfortunate, given that the quality of student–teacher relationships seems to be deteriorating by the time students reach the upper elementary grades (e.g., Baker, 2006, Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Lynch and Cicchetti, 1997, Spilt et al., 2012a). To address this lack of evidence, the present study explored the contributions of student characteristics to the student–teacher relationship quality, the additive power of high- and low-quality student–teacher relationships as sources that may advance or hamper students' achievement, and the indirect effect of student–teacher relationship quality on students' achievement via the direct effect on their motivational beliefs in upper elementary school.

There are a variety of perspectives, models, and approaches used in research on the effects of student–teacher relationship quality on students' academic adjustment. The host of those, including transactional, developmental-systems, and self-determination theories, share the assumption that neither individual nor environmental factors exclusively determine students' developmental outcomes. Rather, these outcomes are assumed to be the product of bidirectional interactions between students and their social environment (Pianta et al., 2003, Ryan and Deci, 2002, Sameroff and Fiese, 2000). In examining processes that affect students' academic adjustment, this assertion is fundamental, as it points to the potential significance of the role that student features play in modifying the social context, which, in turn, may also adjust students' behavior. Some of these student features are known to be innate, such as personality traits that drive students' psychological needs for, among other things, relatedness (cf., Ryan & Deci, 2002). Others, including students' motivational beliefs, values, and goals, may be more internalized through the influence of social forces in the classroom, such as the student–teacher relationship. In concert, these student resources may promote or restrain students' active engagement and academic adjustment in the classroom. A comprehensive examination of such inherent and internalized resources may thus advance understanding of how specific student characteristics interface with supports provided by the teacher to make opportunities for learning available.

Guided by the tenets of transactional and self-determination theories, this study proposes a model within which research on the effects of students' inner resources (i.e., personality) on social forces in the classroom (i.e., student–teacher relationship quality), on the one hand, are combined with research on the association between student–teacher relationship quality and internalized student resources (i.e., motivational beliefs) and achievement, on the other (see Fig. 1). Theoretical and empirical justification for each piece of the overarching model is given in the next sections.

The value of warm, high-quality student–teacher relationships for students' concurrent and subsequent motivation and academic functioning is fairly well-established in prior research (Hamre and Pianta, 2001, Ladd et al., 1999, Roorda et al., 2011). Studies show that a sense of relatedness between students and teachers may provide students with internalized resources that enable them to regulate their own academic behavior, and to develop positive beliefs and attitudes about the self as learner (Baker, 1999, Baker, 2006, Reeve et al., 1999, Roeser et al., 1996). Such internalized resources—or motivational beliefs—include, among many others, students' self-efficacy, goal orientation, perceived competence, and task value. In the early elementary school grades, high-quality student–teacher relationships have been connected to a range of positive outcomes that underlie students' motivation to learn, such as school connectedness, perceived autonomy, and self-efficacy (Baker, 2006, Colwell and Lindsey, 2003, McWilliam et al., 2003, Pianta et al., 2002). Low-quality student–teacher relationships characterized by high levels of conflict or dependency have, in contrast, consistently been associated with school adjustment problems in the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domain (Hamre and Pianta, 2001, Mantzicopoulos, 2005, Palermo et al., 2007).

Mean levels of student–teacher relationship quality are likely to decline across the elementary school years. Typically, both students and teachers tend to report gradual increases in conflict, and decreases in closeness by the time students reach the upper elementary grades (Baker, 2006, Jerome et al., 2009, Spilt et al., 2012a, Spilt et al., 2012b). A small number of studies make it clear, however, that high-quality student–teacher relationships continue to play an important part in older students' motivational beliefs and academic success (Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Jerome et al., 2009, Roorda et al., 2011). Empirical evidence indicates that students' need for relatedness increases during middle childhood, and that high levels of teacher support may diminish feelings of stress associated with increasing school complexity, changes in learning goals, and social comparison (Roeser et al., 1996, Wang and Holcombe, 2010). Students who feel that their efforts and skills are recognized by the teacher have been found to be more eager to explore and learn, to have higher self-esteem and confidence in their ability to learn (Herrero et al., 2006, Wang and Holcombe, 2010), and to have better achievement scores (DiLalla et al., 2004, Roeser et al., 1996). When older students believe that their teachers care for them, they are also more likely to respond with greater effort, to set numerous goals for themselves, and to exhibit greater compliance with teachers' behavioral and academic expectations (e.g., Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Wang and Holcombe, 2010, Wentzel, 2002, Wolters et al., 1996). In a study by Goodenow (1993), over one third of the variance in sixth-to eighth-grade students' interest in and expectations of their academic work was explained by teacher support.

A small but growing number of studies have included tests of the hypothesis that students' motivation-related attitudes and beliefs may mediate associations between student–teacher relationship quality and academic achievement (e.g., Ladd et al., 1999, Woolley et al., 2009). Furrer and Skinner (2003), for example, showed that students' beliefs about their effort, attention, and persistence were maintained through their sense of relatedness to teachers from third to sixth grade. In addition, Zimmer-Gembeck, Chipuer, Hanisch, Creed, and McGregor (2006) revealed that the emotional quality of students' involvement in middle school mediated the association between student–teacher relationship quality and their school achievement. Similar results were reported by Hughes, Wu, Kwok, Villarreal, and Johnson (2012) in a longitudinal study of children from third through fifth grades. These researchers found that teacher-rated behavioral engagement and students' math competence beliefs mediated the effect of students' perceptions of closeness on math achievement. In addition, teacher-rated engagement was also found to function as a mediator in the relationship between student-perceived conflict and reading and math achievement. Collectively, this evidence implies that upper elementary students who feel securely connected to teachers are more likely to internalize positive motivational beliefs about their schoolwork. These internalized resources, in turn, are expected to lead to greater academic success.

The odds of students having a high-quality student–teacher relationship with their teacher appear to be determined, at least in part, by (parents' and teachers' perceptions of) students' inner dispositions and behaviors in the classroom, such as temperament and personality (e.g., Birch and Ladd, 1998, Rudasill and Rimm-Kaufman, 2009, Saft and Pianta, 2001, Stuhlman and Pianta, 2002, Wentzel, 2002). Longitudinal studies on student–teacher relationship quality show that from preschool to upper elementary grades, teacher-reported measures of closeness, and especially conflict for individual students, are fairly stable across teachers (e.g., Baker, 2006, Jerome et al., 2009, Spilt et al., 2012a, Spilt et al., 2012b). Moreover, Jerome et al. (2009) noted that conflictual student–teacher relationships are more determined by student features than any other fluctuating aspects of teachers or the school environment. These findings call attention to the need for further exploration of fairly stable resources that students bring to their relationships with teachers.

Recently, the idea that genetically-based traits may lead to differences among students in the quality of their relationships with teachers has attracted increasing research interest (e.g., Birch and Ladd, 1998, Koenig et al., 2010, Rudasill and Rimm-Kaufman, 2009, Saft and Pianta, 2001, Shiner and Caspi, 2003, Stuhlman and Pianta, 2002). The handful of researchers interested in personality differences in relation to student–teacher relationship quality and academic adjustment have described these differences according to common tenets of temperament, such as effortful control, shyness, and anger (Justice et al., 2008, Rudasill and Rimm-Kaufman, 2009, Rudasill et al., 2006). Personality traits have, by tradition, been distinguished from temperamental aspects, as personality traits are assumed to be rooted in temperamental variations in emotion, motor reactivity, and attention that are already present from birth onward (De Pauw and Mervielde, 2010, Mervielde et al., 2005, Rothbart, 2007). Temperamental variations are biologically-based, and largely determine children's reaction to the environment and the processes that regulate them (Rothbart, 2007). The dynamic interplay between children's temperament and their environmental experiences forms the basis of children's personality. Compared to temperament, personality is considered wider in scope, focusing more on comprehensive, higher-order traits that account for behavioral variations among children and adolescents (Mervielde et al., 2005). In addition, whereas temperament mainly comprises a child's emotional and attentional capacities, personality also involves cognitive and motivational aspects. These aspects of personality include a child's “developing cognitions about self, others, and the physical and social world, as well as his or her values, attitudes, and coping strategies” (Rothbart, 2007, p. 207). Following this line of reasoning, it may thus be assumed that students' personality traits not only predispose them to engage in and value student–teacher relationships differently. These inner resources may, in turn, also have an influence on differences in students' internalized motivational beliefs.

Despite the apparent contrast between temperament and personality, there is accumulating evidence that the common tenets of temperament show evident correspondence with personality traits of children aged 3 to 12 (Goldberg, 2001, Mervielde et al., 1995). An overview of temperament and personality of Mervielde et al. (2005) and De Pauw and Mervielde (2010) reveals that at least three factors of the Big Five Model of Personality (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1992), including extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness, are evidently complementary to dimensions of temperament. As Mervielde et al. (2005) contend, however, autonomy and agreeableness have largely failed to be recognized by temperament models, while emerging as key dimensions in personality research, both for youngsters and for grown-ups. To our knowledge, comprehensive research on factors of the Big Five model has not yet been integrated with studies conducted on student–teacher relationships. A simultaneous exploration of all Big Five personality traits in relation to student–teacher relationship quality may help to integrate evidence from different lines of research, as well as move the field forward by generating new hypotheses about the yet unclear roles of personality factors such as autonomy and agreeableness.

Given its leading role in psychological and educational research (Costa and McCrae, 1992, De Pauw and Mervielde, 2010), this study focuses on the factors of the Big Five model. Including this model in our study may offer valuable insights into both the variation in the quality of student–teacher relationships, and students' academic adjustment, as it encompasses both interpersonal (i.e., extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) and cognitive (i.e., conscientiousness and autonomy) capacities. Of these, interpersonal aspects of students' personality seem to be the most relevant for the quality of student–teacher relationships (Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Hair, 1996). Extraverted persons, for instance, are viewed as effective in social interactions and display friendly, assertive, and gregarious behavior. Evidence has shown that students high in extraversion are more likely to experience positive affect during interactions with their teacher, are ready to seek help when needed, and engage more actively in joint activities (Bidjerano & Yun Dai, 2007. By spending more time with others, extraverts may actively create opportunities for warm and cooperative student–teacher relationships in the course of achieving success (Diener et al., 1984, LePine and Van Dyne, 2001).

Extraversion has been shown to be correlated with several distinct temperamental lower-order traits, such as shyness, sociability, dominance, and activity level (Mervielde et al., 2005). There is some evidence from studies on the link between shyness and student–teacher relationship quality suggesting that teachers experience their relationship with shy children as less close and more dependent than those with more extraverted behaviors (e.g., Arbeau et al., 2010, Thijs and Koomen, 2009). Moreover, results from Rudasill and Rimm-Kaufman (2009) indicate that socially inhibited children are less likely to initiate interactions from teachers than their more sociable peers. Other research (e.g., Saft and Pianta, 2001, Wentzel, 1991) has also found that teachers generally seem to favor students who display extraverted, spontaneous, and companionable behaviors, relative to students with more introverted or shy conduct.

Agreeable persons are commonly perceived as friendly, compliant, courteous, and tolerant (Barrick & Mount, 1991). They tend to be more cooperative and generally have higher quality interpersonal interactions, as they minimize interpersonal conflict by being less hostile, or by provoking less aggression from others (Asendorpf and Wilpers, 1998, Barrick et al., 2002, Graziano et al., 1996). In so doing, agreeable students may experience more satisfying social environments themselves, which in turn initiates higher levels of motivation to work on school-related tasks, and may better prepare them for the academic challenges they face over the course of development (Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Hair and Graziano, 2003).

Whereas both agreeable and extraverted persons are commonly perceived as effective in social interactions, neurotic individuals tend to reflect poor emotional adjustment in the form of stress, anxiety, and depression and are prone to negative affect (Koenig et al., 2010). A number of temperamental lower-order traits, including anxious distress (i.e., self-directed anxiety, guilt, and fear) and irritable distress (i.e., externally-directed irritability, anger, and hostility), have been associated with neuroticism (Mervielde et al., 2005). Such temperamental traits may act as catalysts for poor student–teacher relationships by hindering positive interactions, expressing negative attitudes towards the teacher, and limiting teachers' ability to be sensitive and responsive to students' signals (Little & Hudson, 1998). Previous research on temperament has shown, for instance, that irritable and hostile behaviors are associated with less warm and more forceful and over-dependent student–teacher relationships, concurrently and prospectively (Birch and Ladd, 1998, Howes et al., 2000, Ladd and Burgess, 1999, Little and Hudson, 1998), and lower achievement scores (e.g., Laidra, Pullmann, & Allik, 2007). Furthermore, in a study of Graziano, Reavis, Keane, and Calkins (2007) it was found that neurotic, emotionally unstable students are likely to be rated by teachers as difficult to handle, requiring more energy from the teacher to control their behavior and to assist them with engaging in classroom activities. Students scoring high in neuroticism may therefore have lower quality student–teacher relationships in the classroom. Thus, whereas extraversion and agreeableness may have a prominent position in sustaining high-quality student–teacher relationships, neuroticism will probably result in more conflictual and dependent student–teacher relationships.

Compared to interpersonal aspects, cognitive aspects of students' personality are most often linked with motivational aspects in relation to student learning. Conscientiousness, which comprises temperamental capacities such as orderliness, responsibility, attention and self-control (Mervielde et al., 2005), has, for example, been found to be positively correlated with motivation (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2003), self-regulation (Bidjerano & Yun Dai, 2007), and perceived competence for learning (Ntalianis, 2010) across all educational levels. Although links between conscientiousness and student–teacher relationships quality have hardly been established, there is some evidence connecting this trait to high-quality student–teacher relationships. Because highly conscientious students are meticulous and achievement-oriented, they tend to accomplish their goals by being more caring and sociable towards others, adapt more easily to implicit and explicit social norms, and invest more in long-term relationships than their less conscientious peers do (Asendorpf and Wilpers, 1998, Noftle and Shaver, 2006). This pattern is likely to result in enhanced self-esteem, motivation, and appreciation by teachers and peers, which may in turn engender reciprocation in the form of increased achievement (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2003, Laidra et al., 2007, Steinmayr and Spinath, 2008).

Autonomy has been associated with tendencies towards seeking novel academic experiences, independence, originality, and also with intelligence (McCrae and Costa, 1987, McCrae and John, 1992). This trait has been marked by self-determination theorists as a crucial psychological need that is essential for facilitating students' social and academic adjustment (e.g., Deci and Ryan, 2000, Deci and Ryan, 2008). Empirical work of Verschueren, Buyck, and Marcoen (2001), for instance, has revealed that students are more likely to initiate positive and conflict-free student–teacher relationships when they have dispositions towards curiosity, classroom exploration, and self-determination. Because persons higher in autonomy seem to be more open to change, and willing to transfer new skills and behaviors learned in one domain to benefit another, they tend to be more creative in developing solutions when conflict arises (Wayne, Musisca, & Fleeson, 2004). Conflict in the classroom is thereby likely to be reduced, resulting in better student–teacher relationships and higher achievement scores (e.g., Laidra et al., 2007, Paunonen and Ashton, 2001). Students' autonomy may therefore not only contribute to the development of high-quality student–teacher relationships. Also, it might initiate the kind of teacher support that children need to become motivated to succeed.

To summarize, the purpose of the present study was to explore student features predicting the student–teacher relationship quality, as well as the additive power of high- and low-quality relationships as sources that may advance or hamper students' adjustment during upper elementary school. Specifically, a model (see Fig. 1) was tested positing that (a) students' inner resources (i.e., Big Five personality traits) predict the quality of student–teacher relationships, and (b) student–teacher relationship quality indirectly affects students' achievement via the direct effect on their internalized resources (i.e., motivational beliefs).

Section snippets

Participants

The current study was conducted using data from the first wave of the national Cool-cohort study, which started in the academic year of 2007–2008 in the Netherlands. COOL is a prospective longitudinal research project in which about 38,000 students from kindergarten, grade 3, and grade 6 are tested every three years in language, reading, and mathematics. Extensive information about a number of attitudinal, motivational, and background characteristics is collected as well (Driessen, Mulder,

Measurement model

The first measurement model with latent constructs did not reach a satisfactory fit to the data, χ2 (485) = 7446.92, p < .001, RMSEA = .058 (90% CI [.057, .059]), CFI = .87, SRMR = .053. In order to diagnose potential sources of misfit, the correlations between the residuals and modification indices were inspected. Six residuals appeared to be over-predicted by the model. Stepwise addition of these correlation residuals resulted in a more satisfactory model: χ2 (479) = 3718.47, p < .001, RMSEA = .040 (90% CI

Discussion

In this study, a theoretical model was tested hypothesizing that upper elementary school students' personality traits predict the quality of student–teacher relationships, and that student–teacher relationship quality indirectly affects students' achievement via the direct effect on their motivational beliefs. In general, the findings provided only modest support for the study's propositions, but they contributed to the existing literature on student–teacher relationships in several ways.

Conclusion

Despite its limitations, the current study contributes to the literature on student–teacher relationships in several ways. First, this study has shown that students' inner resources, especially interpersonal aspects of personality, predict and may promote or hamper the quality of relationships between teachers and upper elementary students. Students' personality traits can hardly be altered. However, teachers' awareness of students' character may help them to shape a supportive learning

Acknowledgments

The collection of the data used for this research was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO-PROO).

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