Behaviorally at-risk African American students:The importance of student–teacher relationships for student outcomes

Abstract

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the associations between the student–teacher relationship and outcomes for African American students who were behaviorally at-risk for referral to special education. Students were identified by their teachers as having behavior problems. Participants were 44 students and 25 teachers from two suburban and three urban elementary schools in a mid-western state. A multi-rater, multi-method approach was used. As teacher-reports of student–teacher relationship quality increased, there were also increases in positive social, behavioral, and engagement outcomes for students. Similarly, as student-reports of student–teacher relationship quality increased, there were increases in positive behavioral, engagement, and academic outcomes. Additional analyses of dyadic relationship patterns showed that as the relationship pattern improved (moving from negative concordance to discordance to positive concordance), there were increases in positive social, behavioral, and engagement outcomes for students. Implications for school practice are discussed.

Introduction

The disproportionate representation of African American students in special education has been documented for over 30 years (Chinn and Hughes, 1987, Dunn, 1968, Finn, 1982, Mercer, 1973). Referral to special education has been recognized as an important step in determining eligibility for special education services. In particular, some have argued that teacher referral is the most important step of the assessment process because large percentages of referred students are tested, and large percentages of tested students are determined to be eligible for special education (Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1983). One study found that about 92% of students who are referred are evaluated, and about 73% of evaluated students are placed in special education (Algozzine, Christenson, & Ysseldyke, 1982). Moreover, these rates were reexamined 13 years later and were found to be consistent with earlier results: 90 to 92% of referred students were tested, and 70 to 74% of tested students were determined to be eligible (Ysseldyke, Vanderwood, & Shriner, 1997).

Given that teacher referral is important in determining eligibility, questions have been raised as to whether racial bias exists in the referral process and contributes to the disproportionate number of minority students placed in special education. Numerous studies have examined whether racial bias exists within teachers' referral decisions using a wide variety of research methodologies. Case study simulations have been used in which teachers are asked to read a case study of a child experiencing academic or behavioral difficulties and judge whether special education placement is appropriate for the student, with the investigators manipulating the race of the student in the case study (Prieto and Zucker, 1981, Tobias et al., 1982, Tobias et al., 1983, Zucker and Prieto, 1977, Zucker et al., 1979). Some researchers have criticized that these methods are limited in their generalizability (Hosp & Reschly, 2003), and have pointed out that teachers may respond differently to real children that they interact with compared to hypothetical students in case studies (Bahr, Fuchs, Stecker, & Fuchs, 1991).

Subsequently, researchers have examined whether there are differential rates of referral based on student race when teachers nominate actual students in their classrooms who are at-risk for special education referral and/or placement (Bahr et al., 1991, Kelly et al., 1977). Furthermore, methods investigating whether differential rates of referral occur for students who were actually referred by their classroom teachers for prereferral interventions or assessment have also been employed (Gottlieb et al., 1991, Hosp and Reschly, 2003). Although designs utilizing real students are more authentic, they fail to control for actual achievement or behavior problems exhibited by the students that could influence referral decisions independent of the race of the student (National Research Council, 2002).

While a number of different methodologies have been employed to examine the question of racial bias in the referral process, the evidence appears to point in a consistent direction: African American students are more likely to be judged as appropriate for special education than Caucasian students (Bahr et al., 1991, Kelly et al., 1977) and are referred disproportionately compared to Caucasian students (Gottlieb et al., 1991, Hosp and Reschly, 2003, Shinn et al., 1987). Positive student–teacher relationships may be a protective factor in preventing referral to special education. A study conducted by Pianta, Steinberg, and Rollins (1995) found that students at high risk for special education referral or grade retention, who were not actually referred or retained, had relationships with teachers that were less conflicted, closer, and more positive than did high-risk students who were referred or retained. Having a positive relationship with one's teacher may be a factor that promotes positive outcomes and ameliorates risk for students who may be considered at-risk for negative outcomes such as school dropout. However, having a negative relationship with one's teacher may further promote negative outcomes for at-risk students as well.

Few researchers have studied the quality and impact of the student–teacher relationship for students who are considered to be “at-risk” for negative outcomes. This exploratory study seeks to examine the quality of student–teacher relationships from both the student's perspective as well as from the teacher's perspective for a sample of African American students who were considered to be at-risk for special education referral due to teachers' concerns about behavior. Additionally, this study seeks to determine whether the student–teacher relationship is associated with social, behavioral, engagement, and academic outcomes for these students.

Throughout the last decade, there has been a particular emphasis on understanding how teachers' relationships with students are related to student outcomes (Pianta, 1999). In particular, the majority of the research has focused on investigating student–teacher relationships with elementary-aged populations, which may be most appropriate given that research indicates students and teachers tend to have closer relationships when students are younger. Some studies suggest that student–teacher relationships change as students advance in grade level, particularly as they transition from elementary to middle school. For instance, Lynch and Cicchetti (1997) found differences in children's patterns of relatedness to teachers between elementary and middle-school students. More specifically, middle-school children were more likely than elementary-school children to have a disengaged pattern of relatedness with their teachers. However, middle-school children were also more likely to report having secure patterns of relatedness with peers than were elementary-school children. Lynch and Cicchetti (1997) suggested that this might reflect a developmental shift from an adult orientation to a peer orientation.

Similarly, Furrer and Skinner (2003) found evidence of decreases in students' patterns of relatedness to teachers with the transition to middle school. A study was conducted with a cross-sectional sample of third-, fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students. Relatedness to teachers increased significantly between third and fifth grade. However, children's sense of relatedness to teachers dropped significantly following the transition to middle school. Taken together, the findings from these two studies (i.e., Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Lynch and Cicchetti, 1997) corroborate the work of Eccles and colleagues who have suggested that a number of developmentally inappropriate systemic changes occur with students' transition to middle school, including a deterioration of student–teacher relationships (Feldlaufer et al., 1988, Midgley et al., 1989).

When studying the student–teacher relationship with elementary-aged students, researchers have primarily examined it from the teachers' perspective (e.g., Birch and Ladd, 1997, Burchinal et al., 2002, Hamre and Pianta, 2001). Particular features of the relationship have been shown to be differentially related to whether students experience positive or negative outcomes. For example, Birch and Ladd (1997) showed that kindergarten children whose teachers reported closeness in the student–teacher relationship were more likely to demonstrate academic readiness skills, have more positive attitudes towards school, and to be more self-directed in their learning. In contrast, children whose teachers reported dependency and conflict in the relationship were less likely to demonstrate academic readiness skills, were lonelier in school, liked school less, were more school avoidant, were less self-directed, and were less cooperative.

Moreover, early student–teacher relationships marked by teacher-reported relational negativity have been associated with students' behavioral and academic outcomes longitudinally. Hamre and Pianta (2001) followed a sample of kindergarten children through eighth grade to examine the extent to which teachers' perceptions of their relationships with students predicted students' academic and behavioral outcomes. In terms of academic outcomes, kindergarten teachers' perceptions of relational negativity significantly accounted for variance in math and language arts grade composites in lower elementary, and in standardized test scores in both lower and upper elementary. In terms of behavioral outcomes, kindergarten teachers' perceptions of relational negativity predicted students' positive work habits in lower elementary, and the number of disciplinary infractions students received in upper elementary.

When students have been asked to report their perceptions of the student–teacher relationship, similar findings have emerged. For instance, Murray and Greenberg (2000) demonstrated that fifth- and sixth-grade students who were classified as having poor relationships with teachers had poorer scores on self- and teacher-ratings of social and emotional adjustment than students who were classified as having more positive relationships with teachers. Furthermore, peers' perceptions of the student–teacher relationship also have been linked to outcomes for students. Hughes, Cavell, and Willson (2001) found that peers' nominations of students who fit descriptions of having conflictual relationships and supportive relationships with teachers uniquely predicted their evaluation of social competencies and liking for children in a sample of third- and fourth-grade students.

While evidence suggests that student–teacher relationships are associated with students' academic performance (Birch and Ladd, 1997, Hamre and Pianta, 2001, Roeser and Eccles, 1998), the literature on student engagement has provided insight into how the student–teacher relationship influences students' academic performance. Furrer and Skinner (2003) found that associations between students' sense of relatedness to teachers and academic performance were mediated by their engagement in learning. Two mediator models were analyzed (one for student-report of engagement and one for teacher-report of student engagement), both of which demonstrated that engagement mediated the relationship between relatedness to teachers and academic performance. Thus, engagement may be one pathway by which positive relationships with teachers help to promote positive outcomes for students.

Some students may be more at-risk for having negative student–teacher relationships. Differences in the quality of student–teacher relationships have been documented in the literature based on several student characteristics. In particular, studies have shown that several groups of students are more likely to experience less positive relationships, including boys (Birch and Ladd, 1997, Furrer and Skinner, 2003, Hamre and Pianta, 2001, Howes et al., 2000, Hughes et al., 2001, Kesner, 2000), students with disabilities (Murray & Greenberg, 2001), students who are poorly adjusted at school (Blankemeyer, Flannery, & Vazsonyi, 2002), and racial and ethnic minorities (Kesner, 2000, Saft and Pianta, 2001).

Very little research has examined how the student–teacher relationship is associated with student outcomes for at-risk student populations. However, there is some evidence that suggests that the student–teacher relationship may be even more important in predicting outcomes for at-risk students. Specifically, close student–teacher relationships have been associated with better social and academic outcomes for young children. Mitchell-Copeland, Denham, and DeMulder (1997) found that children who were insecurely attached to their mother, but securely attached to their teacher, were more socially competent than children who were insecurely attached to both mother and teacher. It was thought that a secure attachment relationship with a teacher could potentially compensate for an insecure maternal attachment relationship. Further, Burchinal et al. (2002) found that children's relationships with their teachers were related to their acquisition of receptive language and basic reading skills from preschool through second grade. Importantly, teacher–child closeness was more strongly associated with receptive language scores for children of color than for Caucasian children, and this relationship changed over time. Teacher–child closeness was a substantially stronger predictor of receptive language scores during the childcare years for children of color, but was not strongly related for Caucasian children in any year.

As mentioned previously, it has been documented that African American students are less likely to have positive relationships with their teachers than Caucasian students (Kesner, 2000, Saft and Pianta, 2001). In addition, research has shown that students with negative relationships with their teachers are more likely to be retained or referred to special education than students with positive relationships (Pianta et al., 1995). This exploratory study examines student–teacher relationship quality for a sample of African American students who are considered by their teachers to be behaviorally at-risk for referral to special education. Specifically, this study addresses the following questions for a sample of behaviorally at-risk African American students:

• What does the quality of the student–teacher relationships look like from both the student's and the teacher's perspective?

• Is the quality of the student–teacher relationship predictive of students' social, behavioral, engagement, and academic outcomes? If so, for which outcomes is the relationship most important?

• Further, are both student and teacher perspectives important in predicting students' outcomes in these areas? If so, whose perspective is most important in predicting outcomes?

• Are there dyadic patterns of students' and teachers' perceptions of the student–teacher relationship? If so, does the type of dyadic relationship pattern predict students' outcomes?

By examining how both students and teachers feel about their relationships with one another, we hope to obtain a better picture of what is happening with this group of students. Do students and teachers feel the same way about one another? Additionally, studying several types of outcomes for students (i.e., social, behavioral, engagement, academic) will allow us to better determine which types of student outcomes are most related to the nature of the student–teacher relationship. It is anticipated that it will become clearer as to how the student–teacher relationship most impacts this group of students. This information will be important in learning about the ways in which success can be promoted for behaviorally at-risk African American students.