Maternal positive affect over the course of pregnancy is associated with the length of gestation and reduced risk of preterm delivery
Introduction
The belief that a mother's emotional state during pregnancy may influence the development of her fetus has persisted across time and culture. This has stimulated research on maternal psychological state during pregnancy and various pregnancy and birth outcomes. One of the most consistent findings in this literature is the observed association between higher levels of maternal psychological stress during pregnancy and shortened length of gestation and increased risk of preterm birth [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14]. Although a growing body of literature has examined and demonstrated that positive affect is independently associated with more favorable health outcomes [15] this question has received relatively little attention in the context of pregnancy and birth outcomes.
Several studies, for example, have shown associations between positive affect and improved cardiovascular function, with positive affect being related to accelerated recovery from cardiovascular reactivity [15], [16], [17], decreased blood pressure in ambulatory assessments [18], [19], and elevated parasympathetic activation [20]. Positive affect also has been linked to lower cortisol concentrations over the course of the day [21], [22] and to higher antibody responses to hepatitis B vaccination [23].
One of the few studies on positive maternal affect during pregnancy found that women with stronger personal resources (mastery, self-esteem, optimism) had higher birth weight babies, even after controlling for the effects of gestational age at birth, psychosocial stress, and other variables [4]. Another study reported that maternal dispositional optimism was related to higher infant birth weight [24]. A more recent study described associations of positive state of mind and emotional stability in the immediate post-partum period with having experienced a normal delivery, however, positive affect was assessed in the immediate post-partum period and the positive delivery experience may have caused the higher positive affect in these women and not vice versa [25]. Thus, there is some preliminary evidence suggesting that maternal positive affect may be beneficial in the context of pregnancy and birth outcomes.
The objective of the present study was to assess the relationship between positive affect and length of gestation. We hypothesized that high maternal positive affect would be associated with longer length of gestation, and that this association would be significant even after controlling for the effects of maternal stress levels.
Section snippets
Participants
Data for the present analysis were collected in the context of a longitudinal pregnancy and birth outcomes study conducted by the University of California, Irvine Development, Health and Disease Research Program. All study procedures were approved by the institutional review board and all participants provided written, informed consent.
The study population comprised a population-based cohort of 169 pregnant women assessed serially over the course of gestation (at 15.2 ± 0.9 weeks (T1; mean ± SD),
Results
In our sample, the mean length of gestation at birth was 38.9 ± 2.1 weeks (± SD), and ranged from 26.3 to 42.0 weeks. 20 of these deliveries (11.8%) were preterm (≤ 37 completed weeks gestation). The average levels of positive affect and perceived stress at each pregnancy assessment are depicted in Table 2. Mean positive affect significantly increased over gestation (F(1.7;249.8) = 5.63; p = .006), specifically values at the first assessment were significantly lower than at the second and third
Discussion
Results from the present study suggest that higher levels of positive affect in pregnancy are associated with longer length of gestation and with a reduced risk of delivering preterm. The level of positive affect in the early second trimester of pregnancy as well as the rate of increase in positive affect over the course of pregnancy were positively associated with a longer length of gestation. The magnitude of this effect was such that every point increase in positive affect in the early
Conflict of interest
The authors have no competing interests to report.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by US PHS National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants R01 MH-091351 to CB, R01 HD-065825 to SE, and R01 HD-060628, R01 HD-33506 and R01 HD-041696 to PDW.
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