Does victimization reduce self-control? A longitudinal analysis☆
Research highlights
► The effect of victimization on self-control is examined using longitudinal data. ► Victimization reduces subsequent self-control in the near term. ► Results support general strain theory.
Introduction
There is now little doubt that low self-control is a major cause of crime (Goode, 2008, Pratt and Cullen, 2000). Recent research suggests that it may also be an important predictor of victimization (Childs et al., 2009, Higgins et al., 2009, Nofziger, 2009, Piquero et al., 2005, Schreck, 1999, Schreck et al., 2006, Stewart et al., 2004, Sullivan et al., 2007). This is not surprising when one considers the traits that comprise low self-control, such as impulsivity, an attraction to risky activities, and irritability (see Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990, Grasmick et al., 1993). Individuals with these traits are more likely to provoke others, fail to take precautions, and frequent dangerous places. The research on self-control and victimization, however, has generally failed to consider the possibility that victimization may reduce self-control. This is the case even though such an effect is predicted by general strain theory (Agnew, 1995, Agnew, 2006; also see Colvin, 2000). Strains such as victimization are said to at least temporarily reduce the ability of people to manage their desires and emotions – thus reducing self-control.
It is important to examine the effect of victimization on self-control for several reasons. Doing so will help to clarify the relationship between these variables. In particular, certain prior research may have exaggerated the effect of self-control on victimization since it failed to consider the possibility that victimization also affects self-control. Examining the effect of victimization may also point to another source of low self-control. While researchers have found that self-control is influenced by several factors, it is still the case that most of the variance in self-control remains unexplained (e.g. Cauffman et al., 2005, Goode, 2008, Latimore et al., 2006, Meldrum, 2008, Pratt and Cullen, 2000, Teasdale and Silver, 2009). Further, examining this effect may shed light on a central issue in the victimization research: the explanation of why prior victimization increases the likelihood of subsequent victimization (see especially Ousey et al., 2008, Ruback and Thompson, 2001). If victimization reduces self-control, this suggests that at least some crime victims develop traits that increase the likelihood of further victimization. Finally, examining the effect of victimization allows us to test a key argument in general strain theory: strains of a certain type – such as victimization – reduce levels of self-control.
This paper examines the effect of victimization on self-control using five waves of panel data from the Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) evaluation survey. This effect is estimated using the dynamic panel generalized-method of moments (GMM) framework (see Arellano and Bover, 1995, Blundell and Bond, 1998, Ousey et al., 2008). This method is especially well suited for analyzing the type of panel data we employ, avoiding certain of the potential biases associated with both fixed- and random-effects models. We next (1) provide a brief overview of self-control theory; (2) review the research on self-control and victimization; (3) argue that victimization reduces self-control, drawing primarily on general strain theory; and (4) describe our test of this argument.
Section snippets
Self-control theory
Self-control theory assumes that people are naturally inclined to satisfy their needs and desires in the most expedient manner possible, including crime. People must learn to exercise self-control, and this learning is said to occur in the early family environment. Parents teach their children to exercise self-control by monitoring their behavior and consistently sanctioning deviance. An individual's level of self-control is said to be established by age seven or eight and to be relatively
Data
We employ survey data from the five waves of the Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) program assessment, conducted between 1995–1999.1 Data were collected in the Spring of 1995 and annually in the Autumn thereafter. The sample includes six cities – Las Cruces (NM); Lincoln (NE); Omaha (NE); Phoenix (AZ); Philadelphia, (PA); and Portland, (OR). These cities were
Correlations
Table 1 shows the Wave 1 correlations between self-control, victimization, parental attachment, parental monitoring, delinquent peers, school attachment, safe neighborhood, and year.6 As expected, the table reveals that victimization is positively correlated with low self-control (r = .162; p = .001). The other correlations are also as expected. For example, low self-control is more common among those who associate with delinquent peers, are weakly attached
Discussion and conclusions
Consistent with the predictions of GST, our study reveals that victimization reduces self-control in the near term. This is not to deny that self-control affects victimization. This study, in combination with the research cited above, suggests that victimization and self-control have a reciprocal relationship with one another. The effect of victimization on self-control, however, has generally been ignored in previous research. This effect is important for several reasons. It points to another
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Note: The middle four authors should be viewed as equal contributors to the paper.