Adolescent school-based sexual victimization: Exploring the role of opportunity in a gender-specific multilevel analysis☆
Research Highlights
►Individual-level indicators of opportunity are correlated with adolescent school-based sexual harassment and sexual assault victimization. ►Not only do school factors influence school-based victimization risk directly, they also indirectly influence it by moderating the effects of individual-level indicators of opportunity. ►Though opportunity variables are correlated with sexual victimization risk for both male and female adolescents, there are several important gender differences, indicating that perceived opportunity for victimization does not operate uniformly across gender.
Introduction
Adolescents in the United States are at greater risk for criminal victimization compared to most other age groups (Rand, 2009), with a substantial amount of this victimization occurring in school. For instance, recent data show that students are actually at a greater risk of theft victimization inside of school than away from school and that “no measurable difference” exists in adolescent rates of violent victimization at school versus away from school (Dinkes, Kemp, & Baum, 2009, p. 10). In light of such findings, a good deal of research over the past several decades has been devoted to understanding the correlates of adolescent school-based victimization risk. An especially promising framework in this endeavor is one that emphasizes the variation across adolescents in opportunities for victimization while at school. Such opportunities for victimization are thought to be a function of an individual's exposure/proximity to motivated offenders at school, perceived “suitability” as a target of crime at school, and ineffectiveness of guardianship at school (e.g., see Campbell Augustine et al., 2002, Garofalo et al., 1987, Schreck et al., 2003).
Despite general support for an opportunity-based approach to understanding adolescent school-based victimization, this framework is rarely applied to school-based sexual victimization. Most studies, instead, emphasize non-sexual violent victimization and/or property crime victimization (e.g., Campbell Augustine et al., 2002, Schreck et al., 2003, Wilcox et al., 2009). Yet, limited work on sexual harassment and sexual assault among secondary school students has shown them to be prevalent, especially in the school context. For example, the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 1993, American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 2001. Thus, further etiological work on school-based sexual victimization specifically – including work from an opportunity perspective – is warranted. Is it distinct etiologically from other forms of school-based victimization of youth, or is it, too, correlated with indicators of opportunity? We believe this is an important empirical question. Studies of college students suggest that an opportunity framework holds considerable promise for understanding both sexual and non-sexual victimization of young adults in the campus environment (e.g., Fisher et al., 1998, Mustaine and Tewksbury, 2002, Schwartz and Pitts, 1995, Ullman et al., 1999). Despite the evidence based on college-aged individuals, an opportunity perspective has received scant attention in relation to sexual victimization of secondary school students. It is the latter group, secondary school adolescents, to which we refer and upon which we focus our research efforts throughout this study.
In short, we address the question of whether opportunity is a relevant paradigm for understanding sexual victimization of middle and high school students. We do so through a gender-specific, multilevel analysis of sexual victimization among a large sample of middle and high school students drawn from public schools in Kentucky. More specifically, among this sample, we examine the relative influence and possible interdependency of individual-level and school-level indicators of opportunity for in-school sexual harassment and sexual assault victimization.1 In the course of this analysis, we explore possible differences in multilevel influences on in-school sexual victimization across male and female students.
Section snippets
Opportunity and victimization
Beginning with their seminal piece in 1979, Cohen and Felson focused on the circumstances surrounding criminal events rather than the motivation of offenders. In doing so, they argued that crime is a function of opportunity. For a crime to occur there must be a convergence in time and space of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Although initially developed as a macro-level theory to explain crime rate trends (e.g., Cohen et al.,
Sexual victimization at school
According to the AAUW, school-based sexual harassment is a pervasive issue, as four out of five students experience some form of sexual harassment during their school career (American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 2001, Lee et al., 1996). Pinpointing precise prevalence rates has proven tricky, however, as many studies have utilized lifetime or annual prevalence estimates. Some, however, have relied on a much shorter reference period in order to gain more accurate
The present study
The present study contributes to the existing literature on sexual victimization by exploring three lines of inquiry in gender-specific multilevel analyses. First, we estimate the effects of individual indicators of opportunity on school-based sexual harassment and sexual assault victimization for a sample of middle and high school adolescents. Second, we explore the relative influence of environmental factors on sexual victimization, including whether they moderate the effects of individual
Sexual harassment: males
Results for the gender-specific sexual harassment victimization final models are presented in Table 2.11 The variance component for the unconditional model of sexual harassment victimization for males was significant (u0j = 0.09; s.d. = 0.31; χ2 = 203.30; p < 0.01), suggesting that there is cross-school variation in the mean risk of sexual harassment victimization for male
Discussion and conclusions
Several studies of school-based victimization have been grounded in an opportunity perspective (Cohen & Felson, 1979), though such a framework has not been applied to sexual victimization specifically. In the present study, we explored whether an opportunity perspective was appropriate for explaining school-based sexual victimization among a sample of middle and high school students, and if indicators of opportunity influence male and female students similarly. Our gender-specific multilevel
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Cited by (0)
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Authors’ Note: This research was sponsored in part by grant DA-11317 (Richard R. Clayton, principal investigator) from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. We thank Richard R. Clayton, Graham C. Ousey, Scott A. Hunt, Michelle Campbell Augustine, Shayne Jones, Kimberly Reeder, Staci Roberts, and Jon Paul Bryan for their contributions to the Rural Substance Abuse and Violence Project, which provided the data analyzed here.