Who will care for the elderly in China?: A review of the problems caused by China's one-child policy and their potential solutions

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Abstract

China's one child per couple policy (OCP), with its depressive effects on fertility rates, was established in 1979. Since then numerous studies have documented the effects of the OCP on the aging of China's population. The increasing proportion of elderly in China is producing profound social and economic complications that require the development of appropriate policies. This article addresses this issue in a novel way, by focusing on the sandwich generation, i.e., those who oftentimes care for both younger and older generations. Qualitative data recently collected from diverse representatives of this generation are presented in an attempt to personalize the consequences of this demographic shift and to introduce possible solutions for lessening its effects. We determine that in urban areas many possibilities exist, while in rural areas challenges are more urgent given the proportionately larger number of elderly residents and the lack of options.

Introduction

For the past several decades China has experienced falling fertility and increasing longevity, two demographic indicators that reveal China is becoming an aging society. Although most scholars agree that a population slowdown results in fewer societal changes than a population explosion (Coale, 1986), the potential effects of continued low fertility on social change and economic development, especially in developing countries such as China, should not be neglected.

This study will examine one consequence of China's low fertility, the resultant changes in the lives of the elderly. More specifically, this article will focus on the link between China's one child per couple policy (OCP) and its aging population by examining demographic shifts, especially in family structure and care-giving patterns. As we document these transformations, we also ascertain remedies for these new challenges. This will be undertaken by examining qualitative data recently gathered from urban and rural members of the sandwich generation, i.e., the middle generation who oftentimes must simultaneously care for both younger and older generations. Although numerous aging and demographic specialists (e.g., Logan & Spitze, 1996, Ward & Spitze, 1998, Zeng, 1991) have stressed the importance of studying the sandwich generation, especially with regard to aging issues, few studies focus on the sandwich generation in developing nations. Our focus on this generation in China is an attempt to partially fill this void and to personalize the consequences of China's demographic transformation, as we explore possible solutions for lessening its effects.

This study begins by reviewing the demographic and socio-economic transformations that China has recently experienced, focusing specifically on its increasing proportion of elderly people, and the cultural, social and economic problems this has caused. Next, we personalize this social change by examining individual-level qualitative data. The final section discusses possible solutions that could prove useful for reducing the difficulties experienced by the Chinese elderly.

Section snippets

Significance of this research

In 2000 China had a population of nearly 1.3 billion and an annual growth rate of 1.1% (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2001). From 1950 to 2003 life expectancy increased from 41 to 71 years (Zheng, 2004, Population Reference Bureau, 2004). Should these patterns continue, by 2040 there will be 400 million Chinese at least 60 years old. This figure would represent 26% of the total population and be larger than the combined current populations of France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the

Filial piety and kinship relations

Over the past 2000 years virtually every dynasty has adopted Confucian philosophy as state orthodoxy. Accordingly, the virtue of filial piety became the cornerstone of Chinese social structure (Chai & Chai, 1965). Confucius believed that there was no greater crime than failing to practice filial piety. More specifically, he believed that

The service which a filial son does to his parents is as follows: In his general conduct to them, he manifests the utmost reverence. In his nourishing of them,

Data and methodology

This research is based on 15 interviews conducted during the summer of 2000 in three locations. These include Shanghai, Hangzhou in Zhejiang province, and a rural village in Inner Mongolia. Those interviewed were not randomly selected, but rather comprise a convenience sample. Respondents, however, were selected from various segments of Chinese society in an attempt to include the views of diverse groupings of Chinese society. Ten interviews were conducted in urban areas and five in rural

Mrs. Liu, a parent of one child in the city of Hangzhou, in Zhejiang Province

Mrs. Liu is a married, 30-year-old teacher who works at a middle school in Hangzhou. She is also the mother of one son, and was herself an only child, something uncommon among children of her birth cohort. However, the 4-2-1 family form she experiences will become increasingly dominant during the next decade as the one child cohort marries and produces offspring. For this reason, we believe that her story provides an important view of possible care-giving patterns for urban China, as well as

Discussion

One of the unavoidable consequences of China's OCP has been the aging of its population. The combination of below replacement fertility, reduced mortality and longer life expectancies have transformed China into an aging society that presents challenges never before witnessed in this ancient land or anyplace else. This study specifically focused on demographic shifts caused by the OCP, examining changes in family structure and the provision of eldercare, in an attempt to answer “Who will care

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