Sexual Partner Accumulation From Adolescence Through Early Adulthood: The Role of Family, Peer, and School Social Norms

doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.005

Journal of Adolescent Health

Volume 53, Issue 1, July 2013, Pages 91-97.e2

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.005 Get rights and content

Abstract

Purpose

An early age of sexual initiation and sexual activity with multiple partners are risk factors for an array of detrimental outcomes. Drawing on social norms theory, this study assessed the role of subjective and descriptive social norms from parents, peers, and schoolmates on trajectories of sexual partner accumulation from early adolescence through early adulthood.

Methods

Data were drawn from the in-home survey sample of Add Health, following 14,797 youth from adolescence through early adulthood. Social norms data were drawn from youth, parent, schoolmate, and school administrator reports. Multi-level growth models assess how parent, peer, and school social norms predicted initial levels and growth in sexual partner accumulation.

Results

Parent and peer approval of youth sexual behavior, as well as lower perceived negative repercussions of pregnancy, predicted greater initial levels and greater growth over time in the accumulation of sexual partners. Similarly, youth attending schools with a greater proportion of sexually experienced schoolmates reported higher initial levels of sexual partners. In contrast, greater parental warnings regarding negative consequences of sex predicted heightened sexual partner accumulation. Some moderation by youth gender and age emerged as well.

Conclusions

Results highlight the role of both subjective and descriptive social norms, suggesting the importance of understanding and seeking to influence the social beliefs and expectations of youth and their families.

Section snippets

Sampling and data collection

Data were drawn from the in-home survey sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a longitudinal survey of a nationally representative school-based sample of adolescents in the United States. From the baseline school sample, a stratified sample of 7th through 12th graders was selected for the in-home surveys. This sample was interviewed over four waves in 1995, 1996, 2001/2, and 2007/8, with response rates of 79%, 88%, 77%, and 80% respectively. Youth averaged

Descriptive results

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics on the imputed, weighted sample. On average, youth reported just under one partner at Wave 1, rising to more than one partner at Wave 2, and to over 11 partners by Wave 4, when youth averaged 29 years old. Although 69% of youth reported 0 sexual partners at Wave 1, this dropped quickly, to 14% by Wave 3 and 4% by Wave 4, supporting the use of a Poisson model.

Parent, peer, and school social norms predicting trajectories of partner accumulation

The first multilevel growth model, presented in Table 2, includes the full set of social norm

Discussion

Results from this study illustrate the important role that subjective and descriptive social norms from parents, peers, and schoolmates may play in predicting youths’ accumulation of sexual partners from early adolescence through early adulthood, an important risk factor for negative consequences such as STIs and unplanned pregnancies. Perhaps the strongest and most consistent pattern unearthed in this nationally representative sample was the role of youths’ perceptions of parent and peer

Acknowledgments

This research was funded with generous support from the W. T. Grant Foundation (grant 10909). This research uses data from Add Health, a program project designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris, and funded by a grant P01-HD31921 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 17 other agencies. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Persons

References (22)

L. Steinberg
A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking
Dev Rev
(2008)
M. Kan et al.
Longitudinal predictors of change in number of sexual partners across adolescence and early adulthood
J Adolesc
(2010)
L.O. O’Donnel et al.
Heterosexual risk behaviors among urban young adolescents
J Early Adolesc
(2006)
M. Sieverding et al.
What role do social norms play in the context of men’s cancer screening intention and behavior? Application of an extended theory of planned behavior
Health Psychol
(2010)
I. Ajzen et al.
Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior
(1980)
M. Fishbein et al.
Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour
(1975)
R.B. Cialdini
Inﬂuence: Science and practice
(1993)
R.B. Cialdini et al.
Social inﬂuence: Social norms, conformity, and compliance
R.B. Cialdini et al.
A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places
J Pers Soc Psychol
(1990)
J. Smetana et al.
Social cognitive development in adolescence

R.E. Sieving et al.

Maternal expectations, mother-child connectedness, and adolescent sexual debut

Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med

(2000)

Cited by (40)

Sexual Behavior and Health From Adolescence to Adulthood: Illustrative Examples of 25 Years of Research From Add Health
2022, Journal of Adolescent Health
Citation Excerpt :
However, longer-term longitudinal research suggests that adolescents who were closer to their peers were less likely to engage in sexual intercourse in adolescence, but there were no differences in young adult behavior [25]. However, peer norms about sexual behavior may play an important role; one study found that feeling that peers were more accepting of sexual behavior were associated with more partners in adolescence and greater growth in number of partners through young adulthood [27]. Individuals who attend a school with a higher percentage of sexually experienced students have more sexual partners but do not experience greater growth in number of partners through young adulthood [27].
Due to its long-term longitudinal design, the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) has provided numerous valuable insights into adolescent and young adult sexual behavior. Framed by a conceptual model of sexual behavior and health, I review research using Add Health data to study sexual behavior and health. In this paper, I review research examining both predictors (e.g., neighborhood, family, genetic, individual) and health outcomes (e.g., sexually transmitted infections, mental health) of sexual behavior in adolescents and young adults. Where possible, I focus on long-term longitudinal studies that make use of the unique strengths of the Add Health data. Existing Add Health research has provided considerable information about both the predictors and health consequences of adolescent and young adult sexual behavior. Factors ranging from neighborhoods to genetics predict whether adolescent and young adults engage in sexual behaviors. Findings on long-term outcomes of adolescent sexual behavior suggest that early sexual behavior predicts higher rates of sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy in young adulthood, but not long-term changes to mental health. Unique contributions of Add Health include the ability to examine multidimensional bio-ecological predictors of sexual behavior and to examine long-term effects of sexual behavior and how sexual behaviors and their correlates change across adolescence into adulthood. Future work can leverage these strengths, and in particular the long-term longitudinal nature of the data, to uncover new insights about the developmental course of sexual behavior and health.
Early childhood adversity and Women's sexual behavior: The role of sensitivity to sexual reward
2021, Developmental Review
Citation Excerpt :
The primary theories in the social-psychological domain include social learning theory, social control theory, and attachment theory. Studies of sexual risk behavior based on these theories typically focus on the variations in parental quality, parental supervision, and affiliation with promiscuous peer groups (Beyers et al., 2015; Caruthers et al., 2014; Coley et al., 2013; DelPriore & Hill, 2013; DelPriore et al., 2017, 2018; Dishion et al., 2004; Ellis et al., 2012; Kalina et al., 2013; Quinlan, 2003) all of which have implications for exposure to adversity either by way of lack of care or lack of supervision and protection. With respect to parental influences, Buhi and Goodson (2007) provided a review of studies testing parental effects and found consistent evidence that individuals with more parental support and more parental monitoring and supervision pursued sex at later ages and had fewer sexual partners (Benda & Corwyn, 1998; Browning et al., 2004; Davis, & Friel, 2001; Huebner & Howell, 2003; Li et al., 2000; Miller et al., 1997, 2000; Ramirez-Valles et al., 2002; Roche et al., 2005; Rosenthal et al., 2001; Somers & Paulson, 2000).
About one eighth of people are exposed to adversities such as abuse and neglect. Life history theory suggests that early experiences of adversity are strongly associated with later engagement in risky sexual behaviors. Specifically, those exposed to early adversity tend to engage in sex at an earlier age, have casual sex, and have high numbers of partners. Interestingly, it is also known that individuals exposed to early adversity are more likely to engage in more same-gender behavior. Existing research clearly outlines the association between early adversity and sexual behaviors that are considered risky. However, we have yet to identify a potential mediating mechanism that explains the full range of sexual behaviors seen in those who experience early adversity including adult sexual risk taking and same gender behavior. Outlining the specific mechanisms that influence later sexual risk taking is critically important in understanding the unique developmental experiences of those who experience early adversity. Here we propose and support one mediator important in the association between early adversity and later sexual behavior. We hypothesize that an increased sensitivity to the potential for sexual rewards mediates the association between early experiences of adversity and later sexual behavior, both risk behavior and female same-gender behavior. In the present manuscript we review relevant theoretical and empirical research in support of our claims.
Multi-contextual influences on adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections in the United States
2019, Social Science and Medicine
Citation Excerpt :
However, Jaccard and Dittus (2000) did not find a consistent effect of maternal approval of contraception on subsequent pregnancy risk. Lastly, Coley et al. (2013) found that norms operationalized as parent and peer approval of sex, and attending school with a greater proportion of sexually experienced schoolmates, predicted a greater accumulation of sexual partners; however, greater parental warnings regarding the negative consequences of sex predicted greater accumulation of partners as well. At the individual level, positive attitudes and beliefs about contraception have been shown to consistently predict higher contraception use, the most important method of avoiding both unwanted pregnancy and STIs (Buhi and Goodson, 2007; Malcolm et al., 2013).
Rates of adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the United States remain high. Norms and beliefs about sex and the use of contraception have been identified as potential contributors to these.
The current study examined multi-contextual links between norms and beliefs about sex and contraception, and adolescent pregnancies and STIs.
Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to test the study questions in the historical data from Add Health dataset (Wave I, 1994–1995, and Wave II, 1995–1996). Measures of beliefs about sex and contraception were administered to adolescents and their caregivers; pregnancies and STIs were reported by adolescents (N = 13,568; level 1). School-reported data (N = 132; level 2) included sexuality education and prevalence of pregnancies at schools. Community data included the density of family planning providers in each county.
Adolescents negative beliefs about contraception were associated with a higher likelihood of pregnancies and STIs via their association with contraception use. The opposite effect was found for negative beliefs about sex. Parental disapproval of contraception was associated with a decreased likelihood of STIs, but with an increased likelihood of pregnancies. A greater number of pregnancies at school was associated with a greater likelihood of STIs. Unexpectedly, the number of county-level family planning providers was associated with a higher likelihood of STIs.
Adolescent individual beliefs emerged as the most salient predictors of both pregnancies and STIs.
Adolescent Sexual Risk Taking: The Distribution of Youth Behaviors and Perceived Peer Attitudes Across Neighborhood Contexts
2018, Journal of Adolescent Health
Sexual activity is a normative part of adolescent development, yet early sexual debut and sex with multiple partners undermine health and well-being. Both structural (e.g., poverty) and social (e.g., norms) characteristics of neighborhoods shape sexual risk taking, yet scholarship remains focused on urban areas. Thus, this study explores sexually permissive attitudes and sexual risk taking across a wider expanse of neighborhood types.
Among 8,337 nonsexually active respondents in Wave I (1994–1995 [ages 11–18]) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a hierarchical linear model and a hierarchical generalized linear model were used to estimate the effect of neighborhood type and permissive sexual climate on youths' sexual debut, age at debut, and lifetime number of sexual partners by Wave III (2001–2002 [ages 18–26]), controlling for individual, familial, and peer factors.
Sexual climates varied in overall permissiveness and internal consistency both across and within neighborhood types and were linked to increased sexual risk taking. Compared with youth from upper middle class white suburbs, the odds of sexual debut and the number of partners were highest among youth from rural (black and white) neighborhoods; youth from almost all other neighborhood types initiated sex earlier.
Early sexual debut in adolescence is a public health issue with immediate and long-term implications. Adolescence unfolds in neighborhood environments, the characteristics of which may spur youth into such risk taking. Continued scholarship on sexual risks should consider further variations in the geographic distributions of such risks to investigate more fully their consequences.
Risky sexual behavior of foreign and native-born women in emerging adulthood: The long reach of mother-daughter relationships in adolescence
2016, Social Science Research
Parents’ influence on young adult sexual behavior receives little attention compared to influence on adolescent behavior. Yet effective parenting should have lasting effects. Even fewer studies examine parents’ influence on sexual behavior of both foreign and native-born young adults. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) Waves I (1994–95) and III (2001–02), we examine longitudinal associations among mother-daughter relationship quality and nativity during adolescence and young adults’ risky sexual behaviors of condom use at last intercourse, number of sexual partners, and STI diagnoses (N = 4460). Women, 18–26 years old, who had good mother-adolescent daughter relationships have fewer partners and STIs in the past year. Second generation women have worse mother-adolescent daughter relationships, compared to third generation. Relationship quality does not explain associations between nativity and risky behavior. Lasting associations between relationship quality and risk behaviors suggest that reproductive health interventions should enhance mother-adolescent relationships.
A neuroscience perspective on sexual risk behavior in adolescence and emerging adulthood
2016, Development and Psychopathology

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Original articleSexual Partner Accumulation From Adolescence Through Early Adulthood: The Role of Family, Peer, and School Social Norms

Abstract

Purpose

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Section snippets

Sampling and data collection

Descriptive results

Parent, peer, and school social norms predicting trajectories of partner accumulation

Discussion

Acknowledgments

Dev Rev

J Adolesc

Heterosexual risk behaviors among urban young adolescents

J Early Adolesc

What role do social norms play in the context of men’s cancer screening intention and behavior? Application of an extended theory of planned behavior

Health Psychol

Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior

Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour

Inﬂuence: Science and practice

Social inﬂuence: Social norms, conformity, and compliance

A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places

J Pers Soc Psychol

Social cognitive development in adolescence

Maternal expectations, mother-child connectedness, and adolescent sexual debut

Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med

Original article
Sexual Partner Accumulation From Adolescence Through Early Adulthood: The Role of Family, Peer, and School Social Norms