Latent classes of trait affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies are associated with depression, non-suicidal self-injury, and well-being

doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.015

Journal of Affective Disorders

Volume 225, 1 January 2018, Pages 180-187

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.015 Get rights and content

Highlights

•
Latent Class Analysis used to identify adolescent affective functioning profiles.
•
Five classes based on affect and cognitive affective regulation were identified.
•
Classes were associated with concurrent depression and NSSI.
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Classes were associated with prospective NSSI and well-being.

Abstract

Background

The present study sought to better understand the unique profiles of late adolescents’ affective functioning by exploring patterns of trait affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies. The study also examined whether these unique profiles significantly predicted depressive symptoms, non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), and well-being outcomes.

Methods

Data from a sample of 590 late adolescents were examined (M = 19.14 years, SD = 1.41, 63% Female, 62% Caucasian, 38% African American/Biracial). Participants were followed for an average of 14 months (SD = 2.53) and completed measures of trait affect, cognitive affective regulation, depression, NSSI, and well-being. Data were examined using latent class analysis.

Results

Five subgroups with unique patterns of affective functioning were identified. Late adolescents who reported above average levels of negative affect, dampening of positive affect, brooding, and reflection, coupled with below average levels of positive affect and positive rumination, were more likely to report having higher levels of depressive symptoms and greater engagement in NSSI during the one-year period prior to baseline. Similarly, the late adolescents fitting this profile also reported lower levels of well-being and were more likely to report engaging in NSSI at the follow-up.

Limitations

Limitations include a narrow exploration of affective regulation strategies and the addition of key variables after the initiation of the larger study.

Conclusions

These findings shed light on affective regulation factors relevant to the experience of depressive symptoms and NSSI, and the promotion of well-being.

Introduction

It is broadly accepted that the way people respond to affective experiences is related to outcomes of psychopathology and well-being (Dixon-Gordon et al., 2015, Gross and Thompson, 2007, Tugade and Fredrickson, 2004). Specifically, substantial evidence suggests that individuals are able to exert control over their affective responses by utilizing cognitive affective regulation strategies (Gross, 1998, Gross and John, 2003, Gross and Thompson, 2007), and that these strategies serve to increase and/or decrease outcomes of pathology and well-being. Whereas much research has focused on negative affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies for negative affect to better understand psychopathology and well-being, few studies have explored positive affect and affective regulation strategies for positive affect to develop a more inclusive understanding of late adolescents’ mental health. To better understand the unique profiles of late adolescents’ affective functioning, the current study explored patterns of positive and negative trait affect, as well as positive and negative cognitive affective regulation strategies. Further, to understand and potentially be able to foster factors that help late adolescents flourish, we examined whether the identified profiles were related to concurrent and prospective depression, non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), and well-being.

Section snippets

Negative and positive affect

Trait negative (NA) and positive (PA) affect refer to the tendency to experience negative and positive emotionality, respectively. Much research has examined the relationship between trait NA and PA and psychological outcomes (e.g., Watson et al., 1988a). Indeed, research suggests that higher NA (experiencing frequent and heightened negative emotions) is associated with depressive symptomatology (Watson and McKee Walker, 1996) and low levels of well-being (Larsen, 2009). Research also suggests

Cognitive affective regulation

Negative and positive affect serve a host of adaptive functions by directing our attention to important stimuli in our environment and preparing us for behavioral responses (Gross, 2014, Lazarus, 1991). Although the experience of affect can be very helpful to our survival in this manner, our responses to our affective experiences may not always be adaptive, which can, in turn, lead to psychopathology (Gross, 2014). Indeed, a growing body of research suggests that individuals exert a significant

Current study

Although research has examined the independent relationships between trait affect or cognitive affective regulation strategies and psychological outcomes, little research has examined the nuances of how trait affect and cognitive affective regulation styles coincide within individuals and may work together. This is a major gap in the literature, given that these constructs are inherently intersecting and do not operate in isolation. Indeed, although research suggests that negative affect is a

Participants

Adolescent participants were recruited for Project TEAM, a longitudinal, multiwave, behavioral high-risk study that investigates vulnerability for bipolar spectrum disorder (BSD) onset (see Alloy et al., 2012). Participants were recruited from Philadelphia-area high schools and universities and participated in a two-phase screening process. In Phase 1, adolescent participants (N = 9991) were administered two measures assessing behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity, with students scoring

Results

LCA was performed on all participants who had completed at least one of the indicators of latent class membership (N = 590), estimating models with one through seven classes. The best fitting model as indicated by the BIC and the BLRT was the 5-class model (Table 1). The BIC and BLRT indices provide the most reliable indicators of the true number of classes (Nylund et al., 2007).

Discussion

The goal of the current study was to provide a more inclusive understanding of the unique profiles of late adolescents’ affective functioning. Using a person-centered approach, we identified five subgroups of late adolescents with unique patterns of trait affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies. These five classes were then used to investigate associations with depressive symptoms, NSSI, and well-being. The results show that late adolescents who reported above average levels of NA,

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant MH77908 to Lauren B. Alloy. Taylor A. Burke was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Student Research Fellowship. Brae Anne McArthur was supported by a Banting Postdoctoral Fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.

The funding sources had no role in study design, in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, in the writing of the report, or in the decision to submit the

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Two of these (Bijttebier et al., 2012; Rutter et al., 2020) indicated that attrition from baseline to the first follow-up was less than 20%, so the baseline correlation for the entire sample was used. The second study (Burke et al., 2018) reported attrition greater than 20% but specified no differences on either dampening or depression between participants who completed the follow-up and those who completed baseline measures only. Thus, as for Bijttebier et al. (2012) and Rutter et al. (2020), the baseline correlation for the entire sample was utilized as an approximation of the correlation for the follow-up completers.
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Research paperLatent classes of trait affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies are associated with depression, non-suicidal self-injury, and well-being

Highlights

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Limitations

Conclusions

Introduction

Section snippets

Negative and positive affect

Cognitive affective regulation

Current study

Participants

Results

Discussion

Acknowledgements

Behav. Ther.

Clin. Psychol. Rev.

Behav. Ther.

Psychiatry Res.

Clin. Psychol. Rev.

Personal. Individ. Differ.

Behav. Res. Ther.

Behav. Res. Ther.

Personal. Individ. Differ.

Personal. Individ. Differ.

J. Adolesc. Health

High behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity, reward responsiveness, and goal-striving predict first onset of bipolar spectrum disorders: a prospective behavioral high-risk design

J. Abnorm. Psychol.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-text Revision

Independent assessment of manic and depressive symtpoms by self-rating: scale characteristics and implications for the study of mania

Arch. General. Psychiatry

Cognitive therapy of depression

Responses to positive affect predict mood symptoms in children under conditions of stress: a prospective study

J. Abnorm. Child Psychol.

The Structure of Psychological Well-Being

Cognitive and emotion‐regulatory mediators of the relationship between behavioral approach system sensitivity and nonsuicidal self‐injury frequency

Suicide Life-Threat. Behav.

Subtypes of rumination in adolescence: associations between brooding, reflection, depressive symptoms, and coping

J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.

The interaction of affective states and cognitive vulnerabilities in the prediction of non-suicidal self-injury

Cognit. Emot.

Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators

Cogn. Ther. Res.

Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect

Repertoires of emotion regulation: a person-centered approach to assessing emotion regulation strategies and links to psychopathology

Cogn. Emot.

Are there basic emotions?

Psychol. Rev.

Responses to positive affect: a self-report measure of rumination and dampening

Cogn. Ther. Res.

The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions

Am. Psychol.

The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions

Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B

Positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions

Cogn. Emot.

The undoing effect of positive emotions

Motiv. Emot.

Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: the relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states

Cogn. Ther. Res.

Dynamics of positive emotion regulation: associations with youth depressive symptoms

J. Abnorm. Child Psychol.

Research paper
Latent classes of trait affect and cognitive affective regulation strategies are associated with depression, non-suicidal self-injury, and well-being