Research reportAdolescent risk factors for episodic and persistent depression in adulthood. A 16-year prospective follow-up study of adolescents
Abstract
Background
We examined mid-adolescent psychosocial problems as risk factors for subsequent depression up to adulthood proper, and differences in these for episodic and persistent depression.
Methods
In a 16-year follow-up of an urban Finnish community cohort (547 males and 714 females) from age 16 years risk factors for subsequent depression (S-BDI) were studied. Data were collected with a classroom questionnaire at 16 years and a postal questionnaire at 22 and 32 years. Differences in predictors for episodic depression (only at age of 22 or 32 y) and persistent depression (both at 22 and 32 y) were studied using logistic and multinomial regression analyses.
Results
Mid-adolescent depressive symptoms predicted persistent and female sex episodic depression. Low self-esteem, dissatisfaction with academic achievement, problems with the law, having no dating experiences, and parental divorce all predicted both episodic and persistent depression.
Limitations
We had two assessment points in adulthood, but no information about depression between these.
Conclusions
The associations between mid-adolescent psychosocial problems and subsequent depression extended up to adulthood proper, somewhat differently for episodic and persistent depression. Preventive efforts should be focused towards young people at risk.
Introduction
Depression has an increasing prevalence in adolescence, high recurrence rates, and continuity to adulthood (Hankin et al., 1998, Kaufman et al., 2001, Roza et al., 2003). Depression in adolescence seriously impairs subjective well-being and social development (Fergusson et al., 2005, Kaufman et al., 2001, Kessler et al., 2001). The course of depression may, however, be episodic or chronic (Kaufman et al., 2001), and not all adolescents with significant psychopathology continue to have serious emotional problems in adulthood (Kessler et al., 2001, Lewinsohn et al., 2000, Reinherz et al., 2003).
Longitudinal studies show that mid-adolescent depression, depressive symptoms (Aalto-Setälä et al., 2002, Hankin et al., 1998, Reinherz et al., 2003), sub-clinical symptoms of depression (Fergusson et al., 2005, Pine et al., 1999) and multiple family stressors and psychological distress associate with later depression (Reinherz et al., 2003). Thereby young people prone to depression commonly have suffered from generalized psychosocial impairment and mood fluctuations in adolescence, assessed previously as being “normal”. Adolescence is thus a critical developmental phase for studying vulnerability to depression (Hankin et al., 1998), and research on risk factors besides depressive symptoms or disorders for subsequent depression may reveal additional risk factors and thereby help to identify youth at risk.
Several longitudinal studies have covered the period from adolescence to young adulthood (Hankin et al., 1998, Hofstra et al., 2001, Steinhausen et al., 2006), but less is known about the predictive impact of multiple psychosocial problems in mid-adolescence on well-being in adulthood proper.
We have previously reported that mid-adolescent (at 16 years) psychological distress symptoms, behaviour problems, poor family atmosphere, and interpersonal problems associated with subsequent depression in young adulthood (at 22 years) in a representative population based sample of adolescents (Pelkonen et al., 2003). In the present longitudinal study the same cohort was followed up to adulthood proper over a 16-year period. We studied psychosocial problems in mid-adolescence as risk factors for subsequent depression in adulthood and further, whether there were differences in these for subsequent episodic and persistent depression.
Section snippets
Subjects
The original study population included all ninth-grade pupils (N = 2269, participation rate 96.7%) attending secondary school in the spring of 1983 in Tampere, an industrial and university town in southern Finland with 166,000 inhabitants. These youngsters were studied at 16, 22 and 32 years of age (Fig. 1). The final sample size of the follow-up was 1262. The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the National Public Health Institute.
Predictor variables in adolescence
At age 16, the measure of depression was
Depression at T.2 and T.3
There was depression at 22 years only (T.2.) in 7.7% of the females and in 5.1% of the males, depression only at age 32 years (T.3.) in 12.0% of the females and in 8.8% of the males, and persistent depression (present at T.2. and T.3.) in 5.0% of the females and in 4.0% of the males. Gender specific proportions of subjects by categories of depression, and the gender rations are in Table 1.
To rule out the possibility that the incidence of depression at follow-up was a mere function of depressive
Discussion
In this follow-up study of a sizable and representative population based cohort of adolescents from mid-adolescence up to adulthood proper, the predictive value of mid-adolescent problems in psychosocial well-being for subsequent depression was found to extend over sixteen years. Most mid-adolescent risk factors associated both with episodic and persistent depression.
Our findings on the importance of adolescent well-being for adult depression accord with previous research (Hofstra et al., 2001,
Role of the funding source
The Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation and the Academy of Finland had no further role in study design, in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, in the writing of the report and in the decision to submit the paper for publication.
Conflict of interest
No conflict declared.
Acknowledgements
The study was financially supported by the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation and the Academy of Finland, grant number 80414. Jaakko Kaprio is supported by the Academy of Finland Center of Excellence in Complex Disease Genetics.
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