Maternal and contextual influences and the effect of temperament development during infancy on parenting in toddlerhood☆
Section snippets
Early temperament development
Conceptualizations of NE generally consist of irritability, fear, sadness, anger, shyness, frustration, and discomfort (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000; Rothbart, 1989). With minor exceptions, the structure of NE (i.e. scales comprising NE) has demonstrated relative constancy across the life span, with measures of NE in infancy, early childhood, later childhood, and adolescence typically including subscales that measure fear, anger, and sadness (Putnam, Ellis, &
Temperament and negative parenting
Studies have found both concurrent and longitudinal relationships between higher levels of aspects of NE and increased negative parenting (e.g., Calkins, 2002; Lee & Bates, 1985; Mertesacker, Bade, Haverkock, & Pauli-Pott, 2004; Rubin, Stewart, & Chen, 1995). A recent meta-analysis of the relationship between NE and (less) supportive parenting identified a small mean effect of .06 (Paulussen-Hoogeboom, Stams, Hermanns, & Peetsma, 2007), suggesting that the relationship between NE and parenting
Direction of temperament-negative parenting effects
To date, research on the direction of effects of temperament-parenting relationships has not been consistent. Some evidence points to reciprocal temperament-parenting relationships, whereas other evidence suggests unidirectional relationships with child temperament affecting subsequent parenting or vice-versa. Although an influential model developed by Belsky (1984) suggested that characteristics of the child were lower in importance than characteristics of the parent in the hierarchy of
Factors influencing temperament and negative parenting
Studies examining associations between temperament and negative parenting need to account for parental and family characteristics that may affect both. For example, maternal depression, which has been associated with increased emotional unavailability and negativity, has been consistently linked with disruptions in parent–child interactions and parenting behaviors beginning in infancy and extending through adolescence (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 1994; Downey & Coyne, 1990; Field et al., 1988;
Hypotheses
The current study builds on recent uses of LGM methodology examining questions regarding temperament development and the effect of temperament development on subsequent outcomes (i.e. Lengua, 2006; Partridge & Lerner, 2007). In addition to examining the developmental trajectories of, and transactional relationships between, infant RC and NE, the current study examines family and maternal factors that may affect temperament development, and how changes in these temperament constructs during
Participants
One hundred fifty-six families from Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada with 4-month-old infants agreed to participate. Recruitment occurred via birth announcements located in newspapers and on hospital websites. Primary caregivers, mean age of 30.31 years (S.D. = 4.81), self-identified as primarily Caucasian (92.4%) and came from diverse economic (Family Income M = $61,072; $8000–130,000) and educational backgrounds (years of education, M = 15.17; S.D. = 2.70; 10–25). Approximately equal
Initial LGM analyses
Relative to the linear multiple-domain LGM (χ2[45] = 94.84, p < .01, CFI = 1.00, AGFI = .93, AIC = 4.84, SRMR = .079, and RMSEA = .00), the linear spline multiple-domain LGM, χ2(39) = 61.20, p < .01, CFI = 1.00, AGFI = .93, AIC = −16.80, SRMR = .08, RMSEA = .02, resulted in an improved fit to the data, Δχ2(6) = 33.64, p < .01. The linear spline growth model can be best described as a piecewise linear curve that often resembles a crooked line (Stoolmiller, Duncan, Bank, & Patterson, 1993). This type of growth model is a more
Discussion
Results obtained from the present investigation make a number of important contributions to the existing literature. First, our findings add substantially to the growing body of evidence examining the effect of temperament on parenting practices. In this study, steeper decreases in infant RC from 4 to 12 months of age emerged as the most important predictor of negative parenting when the toddlers were 18 months of age. In other words, those infants who experienced emerging regulatory
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This work was funded by the United States of America National Institute of Mental Health Behavioral Science Track Award for Rapid Transition (R3MH61831A) to the second author, Maria A. Gartstein. We would like to extend our thanks to Sarah Schlect, Amy Crow, Linday Yake, Robin Waits, and Jessica VanVleet whose help was instrumental in completing this project. We also extend our thanks to the many families who participated, making this research possible.