Burnout among social workers working with immigrants from the Former Soviet Union and Ethiopia in Israel: Testing the connections between personal value preferences, immigrant appraisal and burnout

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Abstract

Burnout among service providers working with vulnerable populations can lead to a deterioration in well-being, high turnover of workers and a decrease in levels of services. The current study proposes a new threat-benefit theory (TBT) as predicting experiences of burnout and personal accomplishment among social workers working with immigrants. Based on the theory of human values (Schwartz et al., 2012) and extending Integrative Threat Theory (Stephan & Stephan, 2000), TBT suggests that the local population perceives immigrants not only as threatening but also as beneficial for the receiving society and that this threat/benefit appraisal is related to personal values held by the individual. In a study carried out among 358 social workers in Israel, findings supported a conceptual model in which threat appraisal, toward immigrants from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and Ethiopia, predicted higher levels of burnout and benefit appraisal predicted greater feelings of personal accomplishment and lower levels of burnout. In addition, findings showed that (1) immigrant groups were appraised as both threats and benefits to the receiving society; (2) appraisal of threat was predicted by lower levels of values of universalism, benevolence, self-direction and higher levels of power, tradition and conformity; (3) appraisal of benefit was predicted by lower levels of values of self-direction and power (Ethiopian immigrants) and higher levels of conformity and tradition (FSU immigrants).

Introduction

Social workers are at the forefront of those working with immigrants, trying to help with their adaptation in the new country. Yet work with immigrants can be exhausting and draining and lead to burnout (Tatar & Horenczyk, 2003). The consequences of burnout are potentially very serious for social workers, their clients, and service agencies. Burnout can lead to deterioration in the quality of service that the social workers provide (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). In addition, it can affect the solutions offered for clients’ problems and can impair treatment outcomes. Finally, burnout contributes to the mental and physical health problems of workers and increases their turnover (Toppinen-Tanner, Kalimo, & Mutanen, 2002).

Service providers confront a number of stressors and difficulties when working with immigrants, e.g. lack of understanding and acceptance, fear, and a conflict between helping one’s own community versus helping newcomers (Fong, 2004; Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, Strom-Gottfried, & Larsen, 2009). As such, social workers’ attitudes toward immigrants may affect the quality of their services, as well as their work-related well-being/stress (Ajzenstadt & Shapira, 2012; Ayalon, Kaniel, & Rosenberg, 2008; Weiss, 2001). Therefore, understanding the factors affecting social workers’ attitudes towards immigrants is important for the help-providing organizations, social workers themselves, and their clients. Recent years have seen increasing numbers of immigrants around the world. An estimated 247 million individuals worldwide are considered to be international migrants (IOM, 2016). The large numbers of immigrants, together with the susceptibility of those working with them to experience burnout, makes studying predictors of burnout of paramount importance.

The current study explores the relationship between social workers’ attitude to immigrants from the FSU and Ethiopia in Israel and their experience of professional burnout (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and Ethiopia are the two most numerous groups that have arrived in Israel during the last 25 years. Together with their children born in Israel, there are about 1,200,000 immigrants from the FSU and about 100,000 immigrants from Ethiopia (CBS, 2016). While the processes of adjustment of these two groups of immigrants have been investigated in numerous studies, only a few studies have focused on the attitudes of local people toward immigrants, and no study has focused on the attitudes of social workers toward these immigrant groups.

We examine attitudes of social workers toward immigrants from the FSU and Ethiopia, while testing a new Threats-Benefits Theory (TBT) developed by the authors (Tartakovsky & Walsh, 2016). TBT sets out to explain the psychological mechanisms underlying connections between personal value preferences of the local population, their appraisal of different immigrant groups, and their behavior and emotions during interaction with immigrants (we outline each of these elements below). Applying this theory to social workers, we assume that the personal value preferences social workers hold affect their appraisal of the immigrants as both potentially threatening and beneficial (in different aspects) for the receiving society. In its turn, the group appraisal of immigrants affects the social workers’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior when working with the immigrants. We assume that the group appraisal of immigrants mediates the connection between individuals’ general motivational goals (expressed in the personal value preferences) and the thoughts, emotions, and behavior of social workers during their professional contacts with the immigrants (reflected in their sense of burnout and/or personal accomplishment). Specifically, the theory assumes that appraisal of the immigrant group as beneficial for the receiving country is associated with more positive feelings related to professional contact with the members of the specific immigrant group (i.e. with a lower level of the professionals’ burnout and higher levels of personal accomplishment), while the appraisal of immigrants as threatening the receiving country is associated with a higher level of the professionals’ burnout and lower perceived personal accomplishment.

As such the main goals of the present study were as follows: (1) to conceptualize and test empirically a multidimensional system of group appraisal of immigrants; (2) to investigate the relationships between personal value preferences and appraisal of the two immigrant groups among social workers; (3) to investigate the relationships between group appraisal of immigrants and social workers’ burnout when working with the immigrants (see Fig. 1).

The most popular theory of appraisal of immigrants is Integrative Threat Theory (ITT, Stephan, Ybarra, Martinez, Schwarzwald & Tor-Kaspa, 1999; Stephan, Diaz-Loving, & Duran, 2000). The main assumption of the ITT is that local people perceive immigrants as a threat (Stephan et al., 2000). The theory delineates four types of threats that immigrants may possess for local people: realistic threat (competition for resources), symbolic threat (resulting from incompatibility in cultural values), inter-group anxiety (out-group fear), and negative stereotypes (leading to anticipated negative behavior). However, despite its popularity among researchers, ITT has two main drawbacks. The main weakness of the theory is in its focus on the exclusively negative aspects of the immigrants’ perception by local people. Indeed, empirical studies conducted in different countries have indicated that anti-immigrant attitudes are strong in the local populations (Davidov, Meuleman, Billiet, & Schmidt, 2008; Gorodzeisky & Semyonov, 2009; Raijman & Semyonov, 2004). However, they have also demonstrated that most people in the receiving countries have some positive attitudes towards immigrants, and a substantial part of the local population supports continuing immigration to their country (Lee and Fiske, 2006, Leong, 2008; Mayda, 2006; Velasco Gonzalez, Verkuyten, Weesie, & Poppe, 2008). Another important limitation of ITT relates to the fact that it does not delineate the antecedent factors for different threats. In the present study, we provide a new conceptualization of the local people’s appraisal of different immigrant groups, which includes the appraisal of immigrants as both potentially threatening and beneficial (in different aspects) to the receiving society. In addition, we connect the appraisal of immigrants to the general motivational goals of local people, as expressed in their personal value preferences, thus, suggesting a psychological mechanism explaining the origin and maintenance of both positive and negative perceptions of immigrants.

The present study is based on Schwartz’ theory of values (Schwartz, 1992, Schwartz, 2006; Schwartz et al., 2012). This theory defines values as desirable trans-situational goals that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives. The theory specifies a comprehensive set of twelve motivationally distinct values: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, humility, tradition, conformity, security, and face (Schwartz et al., 2012). The theory assumes the existence of dynamic relations between these values in that pursuit of each value has consequences that may conflict or may be congruent with the pursuit of other values. The conflicts and congruities among all twelve values yield an integrated structure of four higher-order value types arrayed along two orthogonal dimensions: self-enhancement (including values of power and achievement) vs. self-transcendence (universalism and benevolence); and openness to change (self-direction and stimulation) vs. conservation (conformity, tradition and security). Three of the twelve values are considered to overlap two higher order value types: face (conservation and self-enhancement); hedonism (openness and self-enhancement); and humility (self-transcendence and conservation).

Psychologists assume that human cognitive structures are organized according to a hierarchy (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). Values constitute the most general and abstract part of this hierarchy; they reflect individual preferences across a wide range of situations and have a motivational property (Schwartz, 2006). Attitudes are defined as the disposition to evaluate an attitudinal object with some degree of favor or disfavor and, therefore, they represent the individual’s preferences for specific conditions and/or in relation to a specific social object (Haddock & Maio, 2007). One of the prominent functions of attitudes is to assert value preferences (Hitlin, 2003, Schwartz, 2006). Therefore, regarding the connection between values and attitudes towards the minority groups, researchers have assumed that attitudes towards minorities are positively associated with some values and contradict others (Schwartz, 2006, Sagiv and Schwartz, 1995). Specifically, researchers have argued that self-enhancement values (especially power) may align with negative attitudes towards minority groups, while self-transcendence values (especially universalism) may be associated with positive attitudes towards these groups. In addition, the conservation values may be associated with negative attitudes towards minority groups, while openness to change may be associated with positive attitudes towards these groups (Davidov et al., 2008). These theoretical assumptions have been supported in empirical studies on attitudes towards immigrants conducted on both the individual level (Feather and McKee, 2008, Leong, 2008; Vecchione et al., 2012), and at the level of societal value preferences (Davidov et al., 2008, Leong and Ward, 2006).

However, previous studies on values and attitudes toward immigrants have two main limitations. First, they have mostly focused on the attitudes toward immigration in general (e.g., Davidov et al., 2008), yet numerous studies have demonstrated that locals’ attitudes toward different immigrant groups vary substantially (Bourhis, Dayan, & Sioufi, 2013; Fiske, 2002). As such, the connections between value preferences of the local people and their attitudes toward immigrants may vary across different immigrant groups. In the present study, we investigate attitudes towards two different groups of immigrants to Israel, from the FSU and Ethiopia. Second, as mentioned above, the previous studies have mainly focused on negative attitudes toward immigrants. However, positive attitudes toward immigrants exist, and it is important to examine the personal value preferences related to these positive attitudes. In this study, we consider a multi-faceted model of threats/benefits in which locals may simultaneously hold some threat and some benefit appraisals of the same immigrant group. In the present paper we examine the relationship of the twelve values (Schwartz et al., 2012) to appraisal of immigrants and burnout.

Burnout is a complex concept reflecting the individuals’ work-related well-being/distress (Maslach et al., 2001) and has been considered to manifest through: (1) overwhelming exhaustion; (2) feelings of cynicism, accompanied by detachment from the job, and depersonalization and dehumanization of the clients; and (3) a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of personal accomplishment (Maslach et al., 2001). Social workers have been identified as being at risk for experiencing burnout due to their difficult working conditions, which include a multi-functioning and emotionally intensive environment, limited resources, earning relatively low salaries, and coping with the often conflicting demands between their professional ethics and their actual work in the field (Dekel & Peled, 2000; Lloyd, King & Chenoweth, 2002; Reamer, 1998). In the present study, we assume that social workers may experience a sense of burnout during their work with immigrants. Previous studies in social psychology have demonstrated that contacts with people belonging to out-groups may be accompanied by a sense of insecurity, anxiety, diminished empathy, difficulties in understanding the other, and incorrect perceptions of the other’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior (for a review see Fiske, 2002). Among the professionals working with immigrants, this may lead to an increased sense of burnout, including a feeling of exhaustion, depersonalization and dehumanization of immigrant clients, and to a diminished sense of personal accomplishment. However, to the best of our knowledge, professional burnout has not been investigated in the context of work with immigrants. In the present study, we assume that social workers’ appraisal of immigrants as threatening and/or beneficial for the receiving society may affect their level of burnout when working with the clients belonging to different immigrant groups. Specifically, we assume that professionals who appraise the immigrants as less beneficial and more threatening for Israeli society will experience stronger burnout and a lesser sense of personal accomplishment when working with them.

We assume that the local population (social workers in this case) appraises each immigrant group as encompassing both potential threats and benefits to the receiving society. This appraisal relates to different aspects of the relationships between immigrants and the receiving society, which include economic, physical, social cohesiveness, modernity, and humanitarian concerns. We assume that a local population may appraise immigrants as threatening in some aspects but not threatening or beneficial in other aspects. We further assume that the local’s appraisal of different immigrant groups as more or less threatening or beneficial varies depending on the socio-demographic characteristics of the immigrant group and the context of its relationships with the receiving society (cf. Montreuil & Bourhis, 2001; on the distinction between valued/privileged and non-valued/non-privileged immigrants). Based on ITT (Stephan & Stephan, 1996), the recent studies that included both positive and negative attitudes towards immigrants (Leong, 2008; Vecchione, Caprara, Schoen, Castro & Schwartz, 2012), the analysis of public discourse in Israel regarding different immigrant groups (Ajzenstadt & Shapira, 2012; Avineri, Orgad, & Rubinstein, 2009; Ayalon, Kaniel, & Rosenberg, 2008; Lemish, 2000), and focus groups and informal discussions with both immigrants and professionals working with immigrants (see method section for more detail of development of measures), we have formulated four aspects in which immigrants may be perceived as a threat and four aspects in which they may be perceived as beneficial for the receiving society.

Physical threats reflect a fear held by local people that immigrants may cause physical harm, including the harm to the local’s people body and property (Stephan & Stephan, 1996). Economic threats reflect a fear held by local people of losing their dominance over economic resources by competing for jobs and/or for welfare with the immigrants (McLaren, 2003, Stephan and Stephan, 1996). Threats to societal cohesion reflect a fear that immigrants will alter the existing local value system and introduce new behavioral norms, customs, and rituals (Huddy & Sears, 1995). Threats to modernity reflect the fear that immigrants will bring non-modern values and behavioral norms (Lucassen, 2005, Schwartz, 2004).

Economic benefits reflect the immigrants’ potential to contribute to the economic development of the receiving country, which is related to the immigrants’ readiness to take jobs that local people do not want or lack the skills to do, as well as the immigrants’ readiness to work longer hours and for a lower salary (Leong, 2008). In addition, immigrants’ consumption of local goods and services may also benefit the local economy (Borjas, 2001). Cultural diversity benefits are related to the new cultural elements (food, clothes, music, etc.) that immigrants bring with them, which may be perceived by some local people as culturally enriching the receiving society (Leong, 2008, Vecchione et al., 2012). Humanitarian benefits are related to the satisfaction of helping immigrants escape danger in their home countries and improve their quality of living (Leong & Ward, 2006). Social cohesion benefits are related to the potential ability of some culturally close groups of immigrants to strengthen the majority group in the receiving country (Bourhis et al., 2013). These benefits may be especially strong regarding Jewish immigrants coming to Israel under the Law of Return (Avineri et al., 2009).

We suggest a psychological mechanism explaining individual differences in the appraisal of immigrants in the receiving society. We assume that personal motivational goals of individuals affect their appraisal of immigrants. Members of the receiving society appraise immigrants as beneficial or threatening to the receiving society depending on the degree to which they perceive the specific immigrant group as potentially able to promote or frustrate attainment of the individuals’ general motivational goals. As such, an out-group is perceived through the prism of one’s general motivational goals, which reflect one’s personal needs that immigrants may potentially satisfy or frustrate.

An example of this relates to the universalism values. Many members of the receiving society may experience satisfaction from helping immigrants whose life is endangered in their home country. However, people for whom the motivational goals related to understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection of the welfare of all people are more salient (as reflected in the universalism values preferences) may appraise immigrants who have run for their lives as more beneficial for the receiving society, especially in the humanitarian aspect, because these immigrants help these local people to attain their important motivational goals. Applying this kind of the analysis to the possible associations between general motivational goals of the local people and their appraisal of immigrants, we have formulated a set of hypothesis on the connection between different personal value preferences and the specific aspects of appraisal of immigrants (see hypotheses).

We assume that social workers who appraise immigrants as more threatening to the receiving society may have greater difficulty in providing them with adequate psychosocial help. Such social workers may experience strong negative emotions toward the immigrants (e.g., fear, anxiety, and anger). In addition, they may have greater difficulty in understanding these immigrants and in empathizing with them. This cognitive-emotional reaction prevents the establishment of good therapeutic contact with immigrant clients and contradicts ethics of the social work profession (IASW, 1994, NASW, 2008). Therefore, social workers who appraise immigrants as threatening to the country may make efforts to conceal their negative feelings toward immigrants. However, management of negative feelings requires additional emotional investment and thus may constitute an additional burden for the social workers leading to greater work fatigue. As a result, they may suffer from a stronger sense of burnout than those social workers who consider immigrants as a potential benefit for the receiving country.

The current study examines social workers’ attitudes toward the two largest immigrant groups in Israel, from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and from Ethiopia. These two groups differ substantially in their socio-demographic characteristics. Immigrants from Ethiopia are a racial minority in Israel, and a high proportion of them have no formal education. Compared to immigrants from Ethiopia, immigrants from the FSU in Israel are highly educated, have a higher proportion of professionals among them, and their economic adjustment to Israel has been more successful (Amit, 2012, Remennick, 1998). Immigrants from the FSU are less religious, and about a third of them are not Jewish according to religious criteria, while most Ethiopian immigrants are religious. Finally, Israeli media has often portrayed immigrants from the FSU but not from Ethiopia as having a high prevalence of drug and alcohol use and a high level of crime (Bourhis and Dayan, 2004, Lemish, 2000, Ojanuga, 1993).

  • 1.

    Based on differences in the socio-demographic characteristics between the two immigrant groups, we hypothesized the existence of differences in the social workers’ attitudes toward immigrants from the FSU and from Ethiopia. We expected that immigrants from the FSU would be appraised as more beneficial economically and as less threatening to modernity as compared to the immigrants from Ethiopia. We, however, expected that Ethiopian immigrants would be appraised as more beneficial in the humanitarian and social cohesion aspects, yet as less threatening in physical aspects.

  • 2.

    Based on the previous studies on values and attitudes toward immigrants (Davidov et al., 2008, Leong, 2008), we hypothesized that the self-transcendence and openness-to-change values would be associated with the social workers’ appraisal of immigrants as beneficial for the receiving society, while the self-enhancement and conservation values would be associated with the appraisal of immigrants as threatening for the receiving society.

  • 3.

    We hypothesized that higher levels of perceived benefits would be associated with a lower level of burnout (lower emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and higher professional achievement), while higher perceived threats would be associated with a higher level of burnout among social workers.

Section snippets

Sample

Three hundred and fifty-eight social workers with experience in treating immigrants from the FSU and Ethiopia participated in the study: 181 completed the questionnaires in relation to immigrants from the FSU, and 177 in relation to immigrants from Ethiopia. As can be seen in Table 1, the average age of the social workers who participated in the study was 37.6; 91% of the participants were female; the average experience in social work was 9.8 years. The samples obtained were representative as

Structural analysis of the Threats-Benefit Inventory (TBI)

To test the internal structure of the Threats-Benefits Inventory (TBI), we conducted Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for the initial two-level theoretical model. The analysis was conducted separately for the appraisal of immigrants from the FSU and from Ethiopia. In this model, the 35 TBI items constituted eight first-order factors representing four threats and four benefits. In turn, the first order factors represented two second-order factors reflecting threats and benefits in general (

Discussion

The current study examines a conceptual model seeking to understand the psychological mechanism leading to burnout and/or feelings of personal accomplishment among social workers working with immigrants. The suggested theoretical model assumed that the experience of burnout and/or personal accomplishment can be at least partially explained by a psychological mechanism involving personal values and appraisal of the immigrant group as representing threat(s) or benefit(s) to the receiving society.

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