Identity in South Africa: Examining self-descriptions across ethnic groups

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.008Get rights and content

Abstract

We examined identity indicators in free self-descriptions of African, Coloured, Indian, and White ethnic groups in South Africa. Based on trait theory, independence–interdependence, and individualism–collectivism, we predicted that the individualistic White group would have more independent and context-free identity descriptions than the other, more collectivistic groups. We did not expect differences across the four groups in terms of Ideological, Religious, Spiritual and Ethnic aspects of identity. Loglinear analyses of the coded self-descriptions largely confirmed expectations for the African and White groups, but less so for the Coloured and Indian groups. Overall, the study found a large number of cross-cultural similarities with independent, individualistic, context-free and Dispositional Descriptions prevalent in all groups. The most salient difference between the African and White groups was that the African group was more likely than the White group to specify target persons in relational self-descriptions. This suggests a stronger in-group–out-group distinction in the African group.

Highlights

► We examine self-descriptions in the African, Indian, Coloured and White groups in South Africa. ► Independent, individualistic, context-free and Dispositional Descriptions were prevalent in all groups. ► The most salient ethnic differences were found between the African and White groups. ► In Relational Orientation, the African group specified more target persons than the White group. ► The Coloured and Indian groups were placed in between the African and White groups.

Introduction

Self-descriptions are a means of defining the self and contain information about an individual's conceptualization of the self and identity (Bond and Cheung, 1983, McAdams, 1995, McAdams and Pals, 2006, Somech, 2000). The study of self-descriptions is concerned with the investigation of culture-specific features and similarities present in individualistic (western, independent, and idiocentric) and collectivistic (non-western, interdependent, and allocentric) groups (Brewer and Chen, 2007, Oysterman et al., 2002, Somech, 2000, Yeh and Hwang, 2000). In this research study we examined the presentation of identity in South Africa in free self-descriptions using personality trait theory, independence–interdependence (individual level) and individualism–collectivism (group/cultural level) as the theoretical basis of inquiry. The study examined differences in self-descriptions between the four main ethnic groups in South Africa, as defined by the South African government. In order to provide a context for the study this article presents a definition of identity and then describes relevant elements of South African culture and identity. Finally, the four variables that were considered important for the examination of identity are discussed. These variables are (a) Relational Orientation, (b) Content Descriptions (specifying traits and other contents), (c) Situational Specification, and (d) Ideological, Religious, Spiritual and Ethnic References.

The term identity can be used in relation to both individuals and groups (Verkuyten, 2005). Identity refers to both predetermined stable aspects of personhood, such as gender, ethnicity, or age (Alberts et al., 2003, Ford et al., 1993) and fluid aspects in the context of the person (Giddens, 1990), such as choices regarding life partners, work, or interests (Scott and Lane, 2000, Svenningson and Alvesson, 2003, Watson, 2008). Identity involves the complex interplay between various private, social, and contextual components that contribute to defining the person as a composite being.

According to Sluss and Ashforth (2007) a person is a simultaneously unique, interpersonal, and collective being (see also Brewer and Gardner, 1996, Kreiner et al., 2006). In this research we accommodated this multilayered view of personhood by drawing on both personal and social identity theory. In personal identity theory the emphasis is on individual characteristics and defining the self in the context of others. In terms of self-descriptions this translates to a focus on traits and the influence of context on behavior. In contrast, social identity theory places emphasis on relational aspects of personhood and Group Membership. In particular, social identity theory focuses on the beliefs, feelings, and behaviors attributed to a group, and that are considered acceptable by the larger group (Reid and Deaux, 1996, Terry et al., 1999). Within social identity theory Group Membership and the way in which individuals relate to others in their self-descriptions are important. Both personal and social identity aspects impact people's behavioral choices as they negotiate their identity within their social contexts (Ashmore et al., 2004, Hogg et al., 1995, Trafimow et al., 1991, Verkuyten, 2005). The present study was conducted in South Africa and it is therefore important to understand the South African context. The section below provides a description of the four main ethnic groups involved in this study and their cultural context.

The term ethnicity refers to a specific group's cultural characteristics and can include norms, values, attitudes, and typical behaviors (Verkuyten, 2005, Yeh and Hwang, 2000). Prior to 1994 South Africa was governed by a political system known as apartheid, which was based on a sociopolitical model of oppression of all ‘non-white’ ethnic groups. In the South African context ethnic identity is thus related to the way in which individuals and groups overcome this degradation of their ethnicity (Ford et al., 1993). The presence of different ethnicities within the South African context can therefore be seen as a consequence of particular historical and developmental experiences. South Africans are usually seen as belonging to four broadly defined ethnic groups (speaking eleven official languages). These groups are labeled African (speaking Tsonga, Pedi, Venda, Sotho, Tswana, Swati, Xhosa, Zulu and Ndebele), Coloured (speaking Afrikaans and English), Indian (speaking English), and White (speaking Afrikaans and English) (StatsSA, 2010). Three of the ethnic groups speak English either as their major language (Indian group) or as one of their major languages (the Coloured and White groups). Similarly, Afrikaans is the other major language spoken by both the White and Coloured groups. Despite the language similarities these groupings remain distinct and occupied very different positions under apartheid, with the White group dominant over the other groups.

The African group comprised the Bantu speaking people of South Africa and constitutes the largest portion (79.4%) of the South African population (StatsSA, 2010). This group consists of nine different traditional cultural groups, which are distinguished by language. This group was heavily discriminated against during the colonial and apartheid periods in South Africa. During apartheid the African group was stripped of their citizenship and land and their movement was heavily legislated and restricted. Although the present democratically elected government has implemented policies of affirmative action and social redress designed to foster social and economic equality for this group, unemployment and poverty remain rampant among the African group. Most individuals in the African group are employed as unskilled or semi-skilled laborers or are unemployed due to lack of quality education. However, over the last ten years a proportionally small (but rapidly increasing) number of individuals from this group have established themselves as middle-class professionals, government officials, and entrepreneurs. The African group is usually considered to be collectivistic in nature. The core and extended family unit and the community are considered important and there is an emphasis on traditional values (Eaton and Louw, 2000, Joyce, 2009). In recent times this group has begun to incorporate more western beliefs, particularly Christian religious beliefs, into daily cultural practices and ethnic beliefs (Laher & Quy, 2009).

The Coloured group comprised people of mixed descent. These individuals have mixed ancestry that may include the first European settlers and the indigenous KhoiKhoi, San, African or immigrant Asian populations. The Coloured group contains approximately 8.8% of the South African population and 50% of the Afrikaans speaking (the language spoken by descendants of the Dutch settlers) population (StatsSA, 2010). This group received conditional political status under British rule, but this was subsequently removed during the apartheid period. This resulted in the limiting of the Coloured group's political and economic opportunities. During the apartheid era this group experienced less severe legal discrimination than the African group. This group is a beneficiary of the social policy of affirmative action and since the start of the democratic era in 1994 there has been rapid growth in the Coloured middle class population. However, most Coloured individuals still work as semi-skilled laborers or in the service industry. This group considers themselves culturally distinct from the other South African ethnic groups, but shares some religious, value, and traditional practices with the groups from which they descended (Joyce, 2009, Laubscher, 2003). The Coloured group is considered collectivistic because they place great importance on the core and extended family.

The Indian group consists of individuals whose ancestors came to South Africa from the South Asian, Indian subcontinent and constitutes 2.6% of the population (StatsSA, 2010). Some of the ancestors of this group were brought to South Africa as slaves, but the majority emigrated from India in the early 1900s with the hope of building a better life under British South African rule. This group is predominantly English speaking. During colonial and apartheid rule this group's movement was heavily restricted (and even prohibited in some areas) and their political and economic opportunities were limited. This group was allowed more freedom than the African group and Indian individuals were also permitted to become relatively well educated. This group has been relatively economically successful and Indian individuals functioned as merchants and middle to upper class professionals even prior to their inclusion in affirmative action regulation. The Indian group is considered collectivist in nature and maintains many of the traditions, practices and languages that form part of their Indian heritage. However, a large portion of the group also incorporates western religious beliefs (Joyce, 2009).

The White group contains people of European descent and is divided into two main subgroups based on spoken language. These subgroups are known as the Afrikaner (Afrikaans speaking descendants of the Dutch, German, and French Huguenot settlers) and the English (English speaking descendants of the British and Irish settlers and more recent Western and Eastern European immigrants) groups. The White group, as a whole, constitutes 9.2% of the South African population (StatsSA, 2010). During the colonial and apartheid eras people from this group were politically and economically dominant. White individuals had access to good education and employment opportunities, which in turn ensured economic affluence. At present this group may be somewhat disadvantaged by affirmative action, which provides challenges for employment and promotional opportunities, particularly for White males. This group has traditional Christian and western individualistic values and place more emphasis on the immediate core family unit than on the extended family (Eaton and Louw, 2000, Joyce, 2009).

The social, political, and economic discrepancies between the White group and the three other ethnic groups (Mattes, 2004, Seekings, 2008) continue to influence each group's identity. These four ethnic groups are characterized by differences in their identities that predate the establishment of apartheid and are due to cultural development and social organization. The groups’ developmental experiences under apartheid were very different (Jackson, 1998). The apartheid Group Areas Act and the Native Resettlement Act created geographical borders that separated the ethnic groups (Athiemoolam, 2003) and intensified already strong feelings of cohesion and ethnic identity, which continue to deeply segregate South African society (Mattes, 2004). This continued segregation is important to the understanding of identities in each group, particularly in terms of cultural aspects such as individualism–collectivism.

Within South Africa individuals from the White ethnic group tend to come from cultures with individualistic orientations, whereas individuals from African, Coloured and Indian ethnic groups come from more collectivistic cultures (Eaton and Louw, 2000, Green et al., 2005, Laher, 2008, Seekings, 2008, Vogt and Laher, 2009). Individualistic cultures tend to focus more on personal and unique attributes and seek to distinguish themselves from others, whereas collectivistic cultures focus more on inclusion in the larger social group. The concepts of individualism and collectivism and the related concept of independence–interdependence formed the main theoretical background for this study's examination of identity in the self-descriptions of South African ethnic groups (Eaton and Louw, 2000, Jackson, 1998).

Based on the literature concerning self-descriptions and a preliminary analysis of the data, we argue that identity in South African groups, as measured in self-descriptions, differs in terms of four components: (a) Relational Orientation, (b) Content Descriptions, (c) Situational Specification, and (d) Ideological, Religious, Spiritual, and Ethnic References. This classification system originates from models of independence–interdependence, individualism–collectivism, and traitedness, which are explained below.

The Relational Orientation category highlights the distinction between individualistic and collectivistic features of identity (Brewer and Chen, 2007, Eaton and Louw, 2000). Persons from individualistic cultures are characterized by a sense of autonomy and self-fulfillment. They distinguish their unique qualities and regulate their own behavior. Their identities are largely based on personal accomplishments and they therefore tend to have an independent orientation. In contrast, individuals from collectivistic cultures are characterized by a strong sense of mutual obligation and cooperation. These individuals consider the social contexts in which they are placed and depend on the group to provide guidance in terms of acceptable behavior. Their identities are strongly based on relational aspects and Group Membership and they tend to have an interdependent orientation (Grace and Cramer, 2003, Somech, 2000, Triandis et al., 1985, Watkins et al., 1997).

This study distinguished between the South African ethnic groups in terms of independence and interdependence. We expected that the White group's self-descriptions would place more emphasis on individualistic, distinguishable qualities and personal accomplishments than the self-descriptions of the other groups. In contrast, we expected that the self-descriptions of the African, Coloured and Indian groups would place more emphasis on collectivistic, relational, and social aspects than the self-descriptions of the White group. This expectation was tested using the following two hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1

Independence is more strongly represented in the self-descriptions of the White group than in the self-descriptions of the African, Indian, and Coloured groups.

Hypothesis 2

Interdependence is more strongly represented in the self-descriptions of the African, Coloured, and Indian groups than in the self-descriptions of the White group.

Personality theory, specifically trait theory, plays an important role in understanding identity. Traits are important elements of identity (Clancy and Dollinger, 1993, McCrae and Costa, 2003) and provide information about what people are like (McAdams, 1995). The influence of individualism–collectivism on traits and behavior differs in western and non-western contexts. Research suggests that traits provide more accurate descriptions of behavior in individualistic, western cultures than in collectivistic, non-western cultures (Church et al., 2007, Dwairy, 2002, Laher, 2008, Vogt and Laher, 2009). Individualism tends to focus on the concept of an independent, autonomous self where goals are self-directed and emphasis is placed on inner attributes (Brewer & Chen, 2007). It is therefore expected that explanations for and predictions of behavior are predominantly driven by considerations of traitedness, which emphasizes the stability of behavior across contextual situations (Church, 2009). In the context of this study it was expected that this difference would be reflected in the self-descriptions of persons from different cultural contexts. The following hypothesis was tested:

Hypothesis 3

Dispositional (trait) descriptions are more frequently used in the self-descriptions of the White group than in the self-descriptions of the African, Coloured, and Indian groups.

Various researchers have argued for the Situational Specification of personality traits, which provides a more appropriate perspective for understanding personality in the context of collectivistic cultures (Church et al., 2006, De Raad et al., 2008, Kammrath et al., 2005, Markus and Kitayama, 1998, McAdams and Pals, 2006). Matsumoto, Hee Yoo, and Fontaine (2009) introduced the concept of context differentiation, which suggests that different contexts have an influence on an individual's behavior in different cultures. Individuals from different cultures therefore differ in terms of the degree to which their behavior is influenced by situational requirements. Context differentiation is particularly important in collectivistic cultures where behavior is often guided by cultural norms and situational expectations and specific roles, situational aspects and relational considerations are of great importance (Church, 2009, De Raad et al., 2008) In the context of this study it was expected that the self-descriptions of individuals from the African, Coloured, and Indian groups would contain more Situational Specifications than the self-descriptions of individuals from the White group. This expectation was tested using the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4

The self-descriptions of individuals in the White group have fewer Situational Specifications than the self-descriptions of individuals in the African, Coloured, and Indian groups.

South African ethnic groups distinguish themselves using various aspects of ethnicity, race, religion and cultural practice. This category was initially developed as a result of the observation that religiosity and spirituality are common aspects of the everyday lives of many South Africans, irrespective of their cultural backgrounds (Laher, 2008, Laher and Quy, 2009). This category also accommodates references in self-descriptions to ethnic categories such as traditional and cultural practices (e.g., Verkuyten and De Wolf, 2002, Yeh and Hwang, 2000). In the context of this study it was expected that all the ethnic groups would make use of Ideological, Religious, Spiritual, and Ethnic References in their self-descriptions. Due to the importance of both historical and present social, political and economic factors this category was expected to be equally salient across all groups.

Hypothesis 5

The self-descriptions of the African, Coloured, Indian, and White groups make equal reference to Ideological, Religious, Spiritual, and Ethnic aspects.

Section snippets

Method

The study made use of the original qualitative dataset from the South African Personality Inventory1

Relational Orientation

The investigation first examined Relational Orientation differences across the four main ethnic groups. As predicted the model with only main effects yielded a poor fit to the data; Likelihood Ratio Test χ2 (9, N = 3730) = 184.38, p < .001. An examination of the main effects of the subcategories yielded an interesting picture, which is displayed in Table 2. All the ethnic groups used self-descriptions in the Independent Self-Orientation subcategory (b = 3.32, Z = 28.22, p < .001) more frequently than

Discussion

This study examined the ways in which the identities of African, Coloured, Indian, and White groups in South Africa are revealed in free self-descriptions. Independence–interdependence, individualism–collectivism, and trait theory were used as starting points and a scheme was developed for coding self-descriptions of identity. This coding resulted in four categories: (a) Relational Orientation, (b) Content Description, (c) Situational Specification, and (c) Ideological, Religious, Spiritual,

References (66)

  • F.M. Cheung et al.

    Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture

    American Psychologist

    (2011)
  • A.T. Church

    Prospects for an integrated trait and cultural psychology

    European Journal of Personality

    (2009)
  • A.T. Church et al.

    Implicit theories and self-perceptions of traitedness across cultures: Towards integration of cultural and trait psychology perspectives

    Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

    (2006)
  • A.T. Church et al.

    Culture and the behavioural manifestation of traits: An approach of act frequency approach

    European Journal of Personality

    (2007)
  • S.M. Clancy et al.

    Identity, self, and personality: I. Identity status and the Five Factor Model of Personality

    Journal of Research on Adolescence

    (1993)
  • D. Cramer

    Advanced quantitative data analysis

    (2006)
  • B. De Raad et al.

    Which of the Big Five are in need of situational specification?

    European Journal of Personality

    (2008)
  • L. Eaton et al.

    Culture and self in South Africa: Individualism–collectivism predictions

    Journal of Social Psychology

    (2000)
  • A. Field

    Discovering statistics using SPSS

    (2009)
  • Y.A. Fijneman et al.

    Individualism–collectivism: An empirical study of a conceptual issue

    Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

    (1996)
  • D.Y. Ford et al.

    Racial identity development among gifted black students: Counselling issues and concerns

    Journal of Counseling & Development

    (1993)
  • A. Giddens

    The consequences of modernity

    (1990)
  • Government Gazette. (1998). Republic of South Africa (Vol. 400(19370)). Cape Town, 19 October...
  • S.L. Grace et al.

    The elusive nature of self-measurement: The self-construal scale versus the twenty statements test

    Journal of Social Psychology

    (2003)
  • E.G.T. Green et al.

    Variations of individualism and collectivism within and between 20 countries: A typological analysis

    Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

    (2005)
  • L. Griessel et al.

    The cultural identity of white Afrikaner women: A post-Jungian perspective

    Acta Academica

    (2010)
  • G.H. Hofstede

    Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations

    (2001)
  • M.A. Hogg et al.

    A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory

    Social Psychology Quarterly

    (1995)
  • T. Jackson

    Managing change in South Africa: Developing people and organisations

    The International Journal of Human Resource Management

    (1998)
  • P. Joyce

    Cultures of South Africa: A celebration

    (2009)
  • L.K. Kammrath et al.

    Incorporating If… Then… personality signatures in person perception: Beyond the person-situation dichotomy

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (2005)
  • G.E. Kreiner et al.

    Where is the “me” among the “we”? Identity work and the search for optimal balance

    Academy of Management Journal

    (2006)
  • M.H. Kuhn et al.

    An empirical investigation of self-attitudes

    American Sociological Review

    (1954)
  • Cited by (46)

    • Perceptions of retirement savings: Through the lens of Black amaXhosa women in South Africa

      2023, Critical Perspectives on Accounting
      Citation Excerpt :

      However, interdependence is highly valued in Africa, much as it is in Asia (Kamwangamalu, 1999). Within South Africa, this collectivist, non-western, interdependent, and allocentric view is most prevalent within African communities (Adams, Van der Vijver & De Bruin, 2012). This study postulates that the notion of retirement savings is different in the amaXhosa context where there is a broader communal approach to retirement preparedness.

    • Trauma and self-harming behaviors in high school students: The mediating role of identity formation

      2021, Journal of Adolescence
      Citation Excerpt :

      In spite of these theoretical suggestions about how trauma relates to identity in adolescence, empirical evidence on this link, especially in non-Western cultures, is very limited. Given the high levels of traumatic experiences in non-Western countries such as South Africa (Williams et al., 2007) and indications that trauma could also hinder the development of a consolidated identity in South African youth (Adams et al., 2012), this study examines how trauma relates to identity in this specific cultural group. In this study, we examined identity formation as a mediating mechanism in the pathway from trauma to self-harming behaviors in South African adolescents.

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text