Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-15T08:00:41.440Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Childhood trauma and psychotic experiences in a general population sample: A prospective study on the mediating role of emotion regulation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2020

T.M. Lincoln ,
N. Marin  and
E.S. Jaya
Get access

Abstract

Background

The causal role of childhood trauma for psychosis is well established, but the mechanisms that link trauma to psychosis are largely unknown. Since childhood trauma is known to cause difficulties in emotion regulation (ER) and patients with psychosis show impaired ER, we hypothesize that impaired ER explains why people with a background of trauma are prone to psychotic experiences.

Methods

The study used a longitudinal cohort design based on a community sample (N = 562) from Germany, Indonesia, and the United States. Childhood trauma was assessed at baseline. ER and psychotic experiences (defined as positive symptom frequency and related distress) were measured repeatedly at a 4-, 8-, and 12-month follow-up. Cross-lagged panel and longitudinal mediation analyses with structural equation modeling were used to test the predictive value of ER on psychotic experiences and its mediating role in the association of childhood trauma and psychotic experiences.

Results

The cross-lagged paths from impaired ER to symptom distress (but not frequency) were significant. However, there was also evidence for the reverse causation from symptom frequency and distress to impaired ER. ER partially mediated the significant prospective paths from childhood trauma to symptom distress.

Conclusion

The findings demonstrate that ER plays a role in translating childhood trauma into distressing psychotic experiences in later life. Moreover, the findings point to a maintenance mechanism in which difficulties in ER and symptom distress exacerbate each other. Thus, ER could be a promising target for interventions aimed at prevention of psychosis.

Keywords

Schizophrenia and psychosisSymptom distressSocial adversityMediationStructural equation modelingProspective design
Type
Original article
Information
European Psychiatry , Volume 42 , May 2017 , pp. 111 - 119
Copyright
Copyright © European Psychiatric Association 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Varese, F., Smeets, F., Drukker, M., Lieverse, R., Lataster, T., Viechtbauer, W.et al.Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 2012;38:661–671. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonoldi, I., Simeone, E., Rocchetti, M., Codjoe, L., Rossi, G., Gambi, F.et al.Prevalence of self-reported childhood abuse in psychosis: a meta-analysis of retrospective studies. Psychiatry Res 2013;210:8–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P., Bhugra, D., Brugha, T., Singleton, N., Farrell, M., Jenkins, R.et al.Psychosis, victimisation and childhood disadvantage. Br J Psychiatry 2004;185:220–22610.1192/bjp.185.3.220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P., Jonas, S., Kuipers, E., King, M., Cooper, C., Brugha, T.et al.Childhood sexual abuse and psychosis: data from a cross-sectional national psychiatric survey in England. Br J Psychiatry 2011;199:29–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.083642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ackner, S., Skeate, A., Patterson, P., Neal, A.Emotional abuse and psychosis: a recent review of the literature. J Aggress Maltreatment Trauma 2013;22:1032–1049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2013.837132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashcroft, K., Kingdon, D.G., Chadwick, P.Persecutory delusions and childhood emotional abuse in people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Psychosis 2012;4:168–171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2011.619012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duhig, M., Patterson, S., Connell, M., Foley, S., Capra, C., Dark, F.et al.The prevalence and correlates of childhood trauma in patients with early psychosis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2015;49:651–659. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004867415575379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, A.P., Petersen, T.Trauma, metacognition and predisposition to hallucinations in non-patients. Behav Cogn Psychother 2003;31:235–246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465803003011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Fisher, H.L., Polanczyk, G., Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A.Childhood trauma and children's emerging psychotic symptoms: a genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168:65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R.P., Wickham, S., Shevlin, M., Varese, F.Do specific early-life adversities lead to specific symptoms of psychosis? A study from the 2007 the adult psychiatric morbidity survey. Schizophr Bull 2012 sbs049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs049.Google ScholarPubMed
Kilcommons, A.M., Morrison, A.P., Knight, A., Lobban, F.Psychotic experiences in people who have been sexually assaulted. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2008;43:602–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0303-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sitko, K., Bentall, R.P., Shevlin, M., O'Sullivan, N., Sellwood, W.Associations between specific psychotic symptoms and specific childhood adversities are mediated by attachment styles: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Psychiatry Res 2014;217:202–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bak, M., Krabbendam, L., Janssen, I., Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W., Os, J.Early trauma may increase the risk for psychotic experiences by impacting on emotional response and perception of control. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005;112:360–366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00646.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, A.D., Nelson, B., Yuen, H.P., Lin, A., Amminger, G.P., McGorry, P.D.et al.Sexual trauma increases the risk of developing psychosis in an ultra high-risk “prodromal” population. Schizophr Bull 2014;40:697–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, H.L., Appiah-Kusi, E., Grant, C.Anxiety and negative self-schemas mediate the association between childhood maltreatment and paranoia. Psychiatry Res 2012;196:323–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.12.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Fowler, D.Routes to psychotic symptoms: trauma, anxiety and psychosis-like experiences. Psychiatry Res 2009;169:107–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.07.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marwaha, S., Bebbington, P.Mood as a mediator of the link between child sexual abuse and psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2014 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0966-1.Google ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R.A.Emotion regulation: a theme in search of definition. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 1994;59:25–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, J.J.The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Rev Gen Psychol 1998;2:271–299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berking, M., Wupperman, P., Reichardt, A., Pejic, T., Dippel, A., Znoj, H.Emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target in psychotherapy. Behav Res Ther 2008;46:1230–1237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.08.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A.S., Silk, J.S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S.S., Robinson, L.R.The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Soc Dev 2007;16:361–388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T.L.Parental socialization of emotion. Psychol Inq 1998;9:241–273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harder, S.Attachment in schizophrenia—implications for research, prevention, and treatment. Schizophr Bull 2014 sbu133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu133.Google Scholar
Waller, G., Corstorphine, E., Mountford, V.The role of emotional abuse in the eating disorders: implications for treatment. Eat Disord 2007;15:317–331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10640260701454337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D.S., Beck, J.E., Schonberg, M.A., Lukon, J.L.Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Dev Psychol 2002;38:222–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P.T., Cummings, E.M.Marital conflict and child adjustment: an emotional security hypothesis. Psychol Bull 1994;116:387–411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, K.L., Bornovalova, M.A., Delany-Brumsey, A., Nick, B., Lejuez, C.W.A laboratory-based study of the relationship between childhood abuse and experiential avoidance among inner-city substance users: the role of emotional nonacceptance. Behav Ther 2007;38:256–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.08.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., Cicchetti, D.Reactive aggression among maltreated children: the contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. J Clin Child Psychol 1998;27:381–395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khoury, B., Lecomte, T.Emotion regulation and schizophrenia. Int J Cogn Ther 2012;5:67–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2012.5.1.67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimhy, D., Vakhrusheva, J., Jobson-Ahmed, L., Tarrier, N., Malaspina, D., Gross, J.J.Emotion awareness and regulation in individuals with schizophrenia: implications for social functioning. Psychiatry Res 2012;200:193–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.05.029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Meer, L., van’t Wout, M., Aleman, A.Emotion regulation strategies in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2009;170:108–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.07.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lincoln, T.M., Hartmann, M., Köther, U., Moritz, S.Do people with psychosis have specific difficulties regulating emotions?. Clin Psychol Psychother 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1923.Google ScholarPubMed
Perry, Y., Henry, J.D., Grisham, J.R.The habitual use of emotion regulation strategies in schizophrenia. Br J Clin Psychol 2011;50:217–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.2010.02001.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, Y., Henry, J.D., Nangle, M.R., Grisham, J.R.Regulation of negative affect in schizophrenia: the effectiveness of acceptance versus reappraisal and suppression. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2012;34:497–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2012.661405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livingstone, K., Harper, S., Gillanders, D.An exploration of emotion regulation in psychosis. Clin Psychol Psychother 2009;16:418–430. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpp.635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westermann, S., Boden, M.T., Gross, J.J., Lincoln, T.M.Maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation prospectively predicts subclinical paranoia. Cogn Ther Res 2013;37:881–885. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9523-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badcock, J.C., Paulik, G., Maybery, M.T.The role of emotion regulation in auditory hallucinations. Psychiatry Res 2011;185:303–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Rijn, S., Schothorst, P., van’t Wout, M., Sprong, M., Ziermans, T., van Engeland, H.et al.Affective dysfunctions in adolescents at risk for psychosis: emotion awareness and social functioning. Psychiatry Res 2011;187:100–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimhy, D., Gill, K.E., Brucato, G., Vakhrusheva, J., Arndt, L., Gross, J.J.et al.The impact of emotion awareness and regulation on social functioning in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Psychol Med 2016;46:2907–2918. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Velde, J., Opmeer, E.M., Liemburg, E.J., Bruggeman, R., Nieboer, R., Wunderink, L.et al.Lower prefrontal activation during emotion regulation in subjects at ultrahigh risk for psychosis: an fMRI-study. NPJ Schizophr 2015;1:15026. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npjschz.2015.26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lincoln, T.M., Hartmann, M., Köther, U., Moritz, S.Dealing with feeling: specific emotion regulation skills predict responses to stress in psychosis. Psychiatry Res 2015;228:216–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.04.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Racine, S.E., Wildes, J.E.Emotion dysregulation and anorexia nervosa: an exploration of the role of childhood abuse. Int J Eat Disord 2014;48:55–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.22364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Mahen, H.A., Karl, A., Moberly, N., Fedock, G.The association between childhood maltreatment and emotion regulation: two different mechanisms contributing to depression?. J Affect Disord 2015;174:287–295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., Gosling, S.D.Amazon's Mechanical Turk: a new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data?. Perspect Psychol Sci 2011;6:3–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J.A.Ascertaining the validity of individual protocols from Web-based personality inventories. J Res Personal 2005;39:103–129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2004.09.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Vollebergh, W., de Graaf, R.et al.Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004;109:38–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.0001-690X. 2003.00217.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stefanis, N.C., Hanssen, M., Smirnis, N.K., Avramopoulos, D.A., Evdokimidis, I.K., Stefanis, C.N.et al.Evidence that three dimensions of psychosis have a distribution in the general population. Psychol Med 2002;32:347–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanssen, M., Peeters, F., Krabbendam, L., Radstake, S., Verdoux, H., van Os, J.How psychotic are individuals with non-psychotic disorders?. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2003;38:149–154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-003-0622-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Konings, M., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., van Os, J., Krabbendam, L.Validity and reliability of the CAPE: a self-report instrument for the measurement of psychotic experiences in the general population. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2006;114:55–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00741.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berking, M., Znoj, H.Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens zur standardisierten Selbsteinschätzung emotionaler Kompetenzen (SEK-27). Z Für Psychiatr Psychol Psychother 2008;56:141–153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/1661-4747.56.2.141.Google Scholar
Smeets, R., Dingemans, P.Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Version 1.1. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1993.Google Scholar
Rosseel, Y.lavaan: an R package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Softw 2012;48:1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, L., Bentler, P.M.Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model Multidiscip J 1999;6:1–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCallum, R.C., Browne, M.W., Sugawara, H.M.Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychol Methods 1996;1:130–149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, R.M., Kenny, D.A.The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986;51:1173–1182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D.A., Maxwell, S.E.Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. J Abnorm Psychol 2003;112:558–577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheung, G.W., Lau, R.S.Testing mediation and suppression effects of latent variables bootstrapping with structural equation models. Organ Res Methods 2008;11:296–325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1094428107300343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, A., Thoemmes, F., Rose, N., Steyer, R., West, S.G.Theory and analysis of total, direct, and indirect causal effects. Multivar Behav Res 2014;49:425–442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.931797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ditlevsen, S., Christensen, U., Lynch, J., Damsgaard, M.T., Keiding, N.The mediation proportion: a structural equation approach for estimating the proportion of exposure effect on outcome explained by an intermediate variable. Epidemiol Camb Mass 2005;16:114–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlier, B., Jaya, E.S., Moritz, S., Lincoln, T.M.The Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences measures nine clusters of psychosis-like experiences: a validation of the German version of the CAPE. Schizophr Res 2015;169:274–279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2015.10.034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., van Os, J.Stress-reactivity in psychosis: evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clin Psychol Rev 2007;27:409–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Stahl, D., McManus, S., Meltzer, H., Brugha, T., Wiles, N.et al.Insomnia, worry, anxiety and depression as predictors of the occurrence and persistence of paranoid thinking. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2011;47:1195–1203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0433-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lincoln, T.M.Relevant dimensions of delusions: continuing the continuum versus category debate. Schizophr Res 2007;93:211–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.02.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kline, E., Thompson, E., Bussell, K., Pitts, S.C., Reeves, G., Schiffman, J.Psychosis-like experiences and distress among adolescents using mental health services. Schizophr Res 2014;152:498–502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.12.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carvalho Fernando, S., Beblo, T., Schlosser, N., Terfehr, K., Otte, C., Löwe, B.et al.The impact of self-reported childhood trauma on emotion regulation in borderline personality disorder and major depression. J Trauma Dissociation 2014;15:384–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2013.863262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaya, E.S., Ascone, L., Lincoln, T.M.Social adversity and psychosis: the mediating role of cognitive vulnerability. Schizophr Bull 2016 sbw104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, P., Freeman, D., McGuire, P., Garety, P., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D.et al.The prediction of hallucinatory predisposition in non-clinical individuals: examining the contribution of emotion and reasoning. Br J Clin Psychol 2005;44:127–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466504x20044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P.A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Freeman, D., Bebbington, P.A cognitive model of the positive symptoms of psychosis. Psychol Med 2001;31:189–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lysaker, P., Meyer, P., Evans, J., Marks, K.Neurocognitive and symptom correlates of self-reported childhood sexual abuse in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2001;13:89–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10401230109148953.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandavia, A., Robinson, G.G.N., Bradley, B., Ressler, K.J., Powers, A.Exposure to childhood abuse and later substance use: indirect effects of emotion dysregulation and exposure to trauma. J Trauma Stress 2016;29:422–429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.22131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaya, E.S., Lincoln, T.M.Social adversities and psychotic symptoms: a test of predictions derived from the social defeat hypothesis. Psychiatry Res 2016;245:466–472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.09.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heleniak, C., Jenness, J.L., Vander Stoep, A., McCauley, E., McLaughlin, K.A.Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: a transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cogn Ther Res 2015;40:394–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9735-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, A.P., Haddock, G., Tarrier, N.Intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations: a cognitive approach. Behav Cogn Psychother 1995;23:265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465800015873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, A.P., Wells, A.Relationships between worry, psychotic experiences and emotional distress in patients with schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses and comparisons with anxious and non-patient groups. Behav Res Ther 2007;45:1593–1600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.11.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, D.N., Chandler, J., Mueller, P.A.Using mechanical turk to study clinical populations. Clin Psychol Sci 2013;1:213–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167702612469015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terluin, B., de Boer, M.R., de Vet, H.C.W.Differences in connection strength between mental symptoms might be explained by differences in variance: reanalysis of network data did not confirm staging. PLOS ONE 2016;11:e0155205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J., Woodward, L.J.The stability of child abuse reports: a longitudinal study of the reporting behaviour of young adults. Psychol Med 2000;30:529–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R.C., Demler, O., Frank, R.G., Olfson, M., Pincus, H.A., Walters, E.E.et al.Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders, 1990 to 2003. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2515–2523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa043266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catterson, A.D., Eldesouky, L., John, O.P.An experience sampling approach to emotion regulation: situational suppression use and social hierarchy. J Res Personal 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.04.004.Google Scholar
Sheppes, G., Meiran, N.Better late than never? On the dynamics of online regulation of sadness using distraction and cognitive reappraisal. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2007;33:1518–1532. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167207305537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D.A., Martin, N.C., Steiger, J.H.Empirical and conceptual problems with longitudinal trait-state models: introducing a trait-state-occasion model. Psychol Methods 2005;10:3–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.10.1.3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bach, P., Hayes, S.C.The use of acceptance and commitment therapy to prevent the rehospitalization of psychotic patients: a randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2002;70:1129–1139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.70.5.1129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, L.S.Emotion-focused therapy: coaching clients to work through their feelings. vol. xvi: Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association; 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, S.C., Strosahl, K.D., Wilson, K.G.Acceptance and commitment therapy: an experiential approach to behavior change. vol. xvi New York, NY, USA: Guilford Press; 1999.Google Scholar
White, R., Gumley, A., McTaggart, J., Rattrie, L., McConville, D., Cleare, S.et al.A feasibility study of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for emotional dysfunction following psychosis. Behav Res Ther 2011;49:901–907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.09.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnow, S., Löw, C., Dodek, A., Stopsack, M.Gefühle im Griff – Emotionen intelligent regulieren. PPmP – Psychother · Psychosom · Med Psychol 2014;64:284–289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1363683.Google Scholar
Berking, M., Ebert, D., Cuijpers, P., Hofmann, S.G.Emotion regulation skills training enhances the efficacy of inpatient cognitive behavioral therapy for major depressive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Psychother Psychosom 2013;82:234–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000348448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isvoranu, A.-M., van Borkulo, C.D., Boyette, L.-L., Wigman, J.T.W., Vinkers, C.H., Borsboom, D.et al.A network approach to psychosis: pathways between childhood trauma and psychotic symptoms. Schizophr Bull 2016 sbw055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw055.Google ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: PDF

Lincoln et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Lincoln et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 23.7 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Lincoln et al. supplementary material

Figure S1

Download Lincoln et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 10.2 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Lincoln et al. supplementary material

Figure S2

Download Lincoln et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 18.7 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Lincoln et al. supplementary material

Figure S3

Download Lincoln et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 19 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Lincoln et al. supplementary material

Figure S4

Download Lincoln et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 19 KB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.