Applying distributed cognition theory to the redesign of the ‘Copy and Paste’ function in order to promote appropriate learning outcomes
Introduction
This study examines the effectiveness of the learner’s use of the ‘Copy and Paste’ function to interact with content resources in a computer mediated learning environment. The purpose of the study was to demonstrate that distributed cognition theory (Dillenbourg, 1996, Hollan et al., 2000, Hutchins, 1995, Karasavvidis, 2002, Nardi, 1996b, Pea, 1985, Pea, 1993, Perkins, 1993, Salomon, 1993) provides a significant insight into how learners conduct activity in computer mediated learning environments and how they interact with content using mediating artefacts (Hutchins, 1995, Pea, 1985, Pea, 1993, Perkins, 1993, Salomon, 1993, Vygotsky, 1980). Distributed cognition theory was used to justify the redesign a mediating artefact, the ‘Copy and Paste’ function, while encoding strategies suggested by schema theory were embedded in the interface to form an interaction strategy thereby addressing fundamental learning issues such as ‘depth of processing’ of content. The objective of the redesign of the ‘Copy and Paste’ function was to increase the learners’ depth of processing of content and to embed interaction strategies that encouraged the encoding of content to long-term memory through the development of robust and effective schemata (Lutz, 2000, Quillian, 1968, Rumelhart, 1980, Rumelhart and Norman, 1978, Sweller, 1999). A constructivist philosophy (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996, Jonassen et al., 1993) of learning was the basis of the instructional strategy adopted in the study in that it is recognised that in order for learners to ‘construct’ knowledge they must be actively engaged in ‘processing content for understanding’. This approach has lead to the design of computer mediated learning environments that encourage the learner to engage in purposeful activity in products like Exploring the Nardoo (1996). This package, for example was designed as a virtual water catchment area in order to allow learners to explore issues of water management, water quality and environmental preservation via a number of embedded investigations. It is a resource rich constructivist learning environment that relates to a complex and ‘ill-defined’ content domain (Jonassen et al., 1993, Jonassen, 1997). This contrasts strongly with early methods of employing computers in education in which they were used simply as convenient vehicles to transmit content. It is envisaged that the redesigned ‘Copy and Paste’ function would be applicable to computer mediated constructivist learning environments such as Exploring the Nardoo.
Traditionally the emphasis of formal instruction has often been on the internalisation of representations of the external environment by minds working in isolation from others, and often in isolation from real-world contexts (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In contrast to this approach distributed cognition as applied to educational contexts, focuses on the ways in which learners appear to think in conjunction with mediating artefacts that pervade human environments (Perkins, 1993). In this view the internal cognitive resources of learners are shaped by the configuration of the environment at the same time as the individual is acting to re-craft their environment in order to assist in further cognitive activities (Hutchins, 1995, Pea, 1985, Pea, 1993), forming complementary components of a distributed cognition system. Bringing the internal cognitive resources of the individual (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971) into coordination with the external resources available in the environment is important in order to promote effective learning. The design of effective learning environments therefore depends on the ability of instructional designers to understand the cognitive impact of mediating artefacts (Vygotsky, 1980) on the cognition of learners and to design mediating artefacts with the appropriate configuration of affordances and constraints (Norman, 1990, Norman, 1991).
Section snippets
Theoretical underpinning – distributed cognition
Arising from the work of Lev Vygotsky in the 1930s, distributed cognition (Cole and Engeström, 1993, Dillenbourg, 1996, Engeström, 1999, Hollan et al., 2000, Hutchins, 1995, Karasavvidis, 2002, Nardi, 1996b, Pea, 1985, Pea, 1993, Perkins, 1993, Salomon, 1993, Wertsch, 1985), recognises the role that mediating artefacts play in human cognition. This study looks at the role of a specific mediating artefact, the ‘Copy and Paste’ function, in guiding or shaping the cognition of learners. Vygotsky
Reconfiguring the ‘Copy and Paste’ function
When examining the ‘Copy and Paste’ interaction it is important to understand its historical context as activity theory (Engeström, 1987, Engeström, 1998, Engeström, 1999, Kuutti, 1996, Nardi, 1996a) indicates that the form and functionality of tools and mediating artefacts is heavily influenced by the social context in which they were developed. The ‘Copy and Paste’ interaction was originally developed for business applications and consequently its primary affordances are accuracy, the
Methodology and experiment
A study was conducted in the unit MMS2701 Principles of Educational Multimedia, a second year unit in the Bachelor of Multimedia Systems degree in the Faculty of Information Technology at the Monash University. In 2004 a pilot study was conducted involving 36 participants (control group 17, and experimental group 19) in order to test the methodology and research instruments used. The same methodology was used in the 2005 follow up study with 33 participants (control group 17 and experimental
Outcomes
This study examined the impact of an experimental treatment based on changes to the ‘Copy and Paste’ function in terms of:
- (a)
changes to interaction strategies employed by learners;
- (b)
changes in learner familiarity with note taking and summarisation interaction strategies;
- (c)
changes to the features of the text produced by learners.
In each of these areas differences were observed between the experimental and control groups.
Conclusions and further research
In this paper data has been presented and analysed in three areas; observations of participant activity, participant familiarity with note taking and summarisation techniques, and the features of notes produced by participants. Significant differences between experimental and control groups were observed in a number of areas. The results presented in this paper lead to the conclusion that mediating artefacts do indeed influence the cognitions of those who interact with them. The effects
References (38)
- et al.
The control of short-term memory
Scientific American
(1971) Thinking
(1958)Introduction to research methods
(1997)- et al.
A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognition
- Corderoy, R. M., Harper, B. M., Hedberg, J. G., & Wright, R. J. (1998). Exploring the Nardoo – The development and...
Some technical implications of distributed cognition on the design of interactive learning environments
Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education
(1996)- et al.
Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction
- Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki,...
- Engeström, Y. (1998). The activity system. Retrieved on 3/21/1998 from...
Activity theory and individual and social transformation
Supporting learners to solve ill-structured problems
Distributed cognition: toward a new foundation for human–computer interaction research
ACM Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction
Cognition in the wild
Mixed methods research: a research paradigm whose time has come
Educational Researcher
Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes
Educational Technology Research and Development
A manifesto for a constructivist approach to technology in higher education
Distributed cognition and educational practice
Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Cited by (19)
Incorporating Medical Student Documentation Into the Billable Encounter: A Pragmatic Approach to Implementation of the 2018 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Rule Revision
2020, ChestCitation Excerpt :Without appropriate faculty oversight and feedback, students are at risk for developing the negative habits that electronic documentation has made all too easy. Unchecked use of prepopulated templates, copy forward, and copy and paste note functionality can lead to redundancy and inaccuracy within the medical record and result in less critical analysis of relevant information.12,13 Conversely, if students receive appropriate instruction on EHR skills and clear expectations for high-quality notes, and are encouraged to develop their clinical reasoning in their earliest clinical encounters, these concerns may be mitigated.
Digital plagiarism: An experimental study of the effect of instructional goals and copy-and-paste affordance
2015, Computers and EducationCitation Excerpt :However, several academic integrity studies have suggested that these technology tools also provide learners with increased means to engage in academic cheating and plagiarism as well (e.g., Ellery, 2008; Ma, Lu, Turner, & Wan, 2007; McDonald & Carroll, 2006; Selwyn, 2008; Scanlon & Neumann, 2002; Thompson, 2006; Underwood & Szabo, 2003). Furthermore, some researchers suggest that the affordance of the “copy-and-paste” function specifically increases the likelihood of negative learning outcomes rather than engendering the appropriate level of cognitive load to produce strong learning effects (e.g., Morgan, Brickell, & Harper, 2008; Warn, 2006). In contrast, Trushell, Byrne, and Hassan (2013) investigated the relationship between college students' use of information and communication technology and cheating behaviors such as plagiarism.
User-Generated Digital Flashcards Yield Better Learning Than Premade Flashcards
2022, Journal of Applied Research in Memory and CognitionStudents' Experience of Empowerment from Multiple Scaffolders in PBL on Facebook
2022, Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and HumanitiesRepresentationalism and Power: The Individual Subject and Distributed Cognition in the Field of Educational Technology
2019, Studies in Philosophy and EducationSometimes determination and compromise thwart success: lessons learned from an effort to study copying and pasting in the electronic medical record
2018, Perspectives on Medical Education