Relations between restorative parental discipline, family climate, parental support, empathy, shame, and defenders in bullying
Introduction
The literature suggests about 15%–30% of Mexican adolescent students have participated in a bullying event, playing either the aggressor or victim role (National Institute of Statistic and Geography [INEGI, for its Spanish acronym], 2015; Organization for Cooperation and Economic Development [OECD], 2017). According to Volk, Dane, and Marini (2014), bullying is an intentional aggressive behavior repeatedly performed within an unequal power relationship that involves aggressors, victims, and bystanders. Although bullying may be related with numerous factors, it seems that emotional and psychological problems are strongly associated with this behavior (Lambe, Hudson, Craig, & Pepler, 2017; Werth, Nickerson, Aloe, & Swearer, 2015).
During the last decades, scholars have unsuccessfully strived to elucidate the factors that may lessen and prevent bullying events. While aggressor and victim roles have received considerable attention, bystanders, the individuals who witness the aggressions, are understudied. In this regard, recent studies suggest bystanders may play a significant role in bullying (Denny et al., 2015; Polanin, Espegale, & Pigott, 2012; Pronk, Olthof, & Goossens, 2015; Saarento, Boulton, & Salmivalli, 2015). For some scholars (Demaray, Summers, Jenkins, & Becker, 2016; Pouwels, Lansu, & Cillessen, 2017) the complexity of bystanders is explained by the variety of different roles that may be adopted (assistant, encouraging, defender, and non-involved). Whereas the defender is the only one that has the potential to stop and lessen bullying events, our interest is understanding the factors that lead bystanders to adopt a defender. It is expected this knowledge, may contribute to add significant knowledge aimed to lessen and prevent bullying events.
The role of bystander, as with any complex behavior, can be explained through a variety of yet to be explored variables (Lambe et al., 2018). Most previous research on defenders has focused on analysis of individual characteristics (Datta, Cornell, & Huang, 2016; Jenkins, Demaray, Fredrick, & Summers, 2016); peer relations (Gini, Pozzoli, & Bussey, 2014; van der Ploeg, Kretschmer, Salmivalli, & Veenstra, 2017); and school context (Jungert, Piroddi, & Thornberg, 2016; Storer, Casey, & Herrenkohl, 2017). However, very little is yet known about other factors leading witnesses to adopt a defender role. In this regard, emerging studies (Lambe et al., 2017; Machackova & Pfetsch, 2016; Werth et al., 2015) suggest moral emotions have the potential to be behavioral drivers. Therefore, it is essential to understand where these emotions come from.
For some scholars, family constitutes a fundamental context for moral emotional development and the role adopted by bystanders (Ngai, Xie, Ng, & Ngai, 2018; Padilla-Walker, Carlos, Christensen, & Vorgason, 2012). Unsurprisingly, individual moral development and the role adopted by bystanders are increasingly associated with the socialization process within the family and the individual's family characteristics (Casey, Lindhorst, & Storer, 2017; Machackova & Pfetsch, 2016; Pozzoli & Gini, 2013; van der Ploeg et al., 2017). As a result, a growing number of scholars (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2006; Carlo, Knight, McGinley, & Hayes, 2011; Padilla-Walker, Fraser, & Harper, 2012) assert that family, specifically with positive parenting, are behavioral drivers that lead adolescents to adopt a defender role in bullying. Therefore, positive parenting strategies have drawn the attention of bullying researchers.
The exploration of the effects of parenting is particularly important for countries like Mexico, where family constitutes the most influential behavioral driver (Díaz-Loving, Saldívar, Armenta-Hurtarte, Reyes, & Moreno, 2017; Gonzalez, Pitts, Hill, & Roosa, 2000). Traditionally, Mexican family values promotes respect, cooperation, and reciprocity (Gonzalez et al., 2000). Thus, exploring the ways family promotes prosocial behavior in adolescents is imperative (Criss, Smith, Morris, Liu, & Hubbard, 2017; Fan & Chen, 2012). This is particularly applicable to the Mexican context, where positive parenting has already proven to be effective in protecting adolescents of violence exposure in several Mexican communities (National Institute of Statistic and Geography, 2017, Institute for Economics and Peace, 2018).
Despite evidence that positive parenting constitutes a fundamental condition for moral emotional development (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Knafo-Noam, 2015; Ngai et al., 2018; Padilla-Walker, Carlos, et al., 2012), the literature scarcely explores its impact on the defender role. In fact, past and emerging studies have limited their scope to exploring parental support (Lambe et al., 2018; Li, Chen, Chen, & Wu, 2015), attachment (Nickerson, Mele, & Princiotta, 2008), and parental expectations (Pozzoli & Gini, 2013). No studies known by the authors have explored the effects of positive parental discipline strategies on the behavior of bystanders in bullying events among Mexican adolescents.
While the research is currently scarce, the literature does give reason to suspect that the role adopted by bystanders in bullying may be associated with family-related variables, specifically, with the kind of parenting exerted at home. The authors posit that family is the most influential institution shaping human behavior through a pervasive socialization process that provides not only guidance but also safety within a proper context. Therefore, both the parent-driver model (where the direction of effects goes from the parent to the adolescent) and the restorative justice concept were adopted as the framework to explore the effect of positive parenting on the defender bystander role in bullying.
In society, adolescents are surrounded by many influential models (teachers, peers, friends, adults), but family remains essential to adolescent development (Dunn, 2014; Grusec & Davidov, 2007). However, family functions are not limited to mere socialization of their members, it also protects members and provides guidance (Patterson, 2002). The family provides guidance through a punitive or positive parenting. Whereas punitive parenting comprises punishment and child stigmatization, positive parenting stresses mutual respect. Although both parenting techniques provide learning that lasts a lifetime, positive parenting focuses on learning for the future instead of punishing for the past.
Positive parenting includes inductive discipline practices, a positive family climate, and support (Davis & Carlo, 2018; Pastorelli et al., 2016; Waller et al., 2015). In terms of bullying, adopting an inductive discipline implies reasoning with adolescents about the consequences of transgression for the victim (Patrick & Gibbs, 2012). One method is restorative discipline, which encourages adolescents to recognize the negative effects of aggression, and to repair the harm inflicted on the victims, without stigmatization (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2006; Harris, 2001). As a result, some research has found positive parenting to be a beneficial frame when exploring discipline in bullying events (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2012; Morrison, 2006).
Restorative discipline may be related to the adoption of the defender role in multiple ways. This discipline promotes accountability for bullies, whereas it also fosters reflection about their emotions and compassion for others' emotions as well (Duggins, Kuperminc, Henrich, Smalls-Glover, & Perilla, 2016; Lambe et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015; Vieira Jr., 2015). Parents exerting this discipline exhibit moral emotions such as concern (i.e., empathy), caring, and comforting behaviors that are frequently emulated by children (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Lai, Siu, & Shek, 2015). Further, parents express disappointment without stigmatizing; on the contrary, adolescents are reminded they can do better in terms of moral behavior (Patrick & Gibbs, 2012).
Predictably, parents adopting this discipline allow children to perceive a positive family climate and parental support. These conditions lead adolescents to both accept family goals (Carvalho, Fernandes, & Relva, 2018; Hastings, Miller, & Troxel, 2015), and to internalize parental values associated with respect and care of others (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Hoffman, 2000; Pastorelli et al., 2016). These reasons make restorative discipline an attractive strategy for scholars (Carlo, McGinley, Hayes, & Martinez, 2012; Pastorelli et al., 2016) studying the factors that lead to pro-social behaviors, such as taking a defender role in this case.
Morality belongs to the set of emotions that regulate social relationships in society (Smetana, 1999). According to some scholars (Hair, 2003; Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007), moral behavior derives from individuals' self-assessment of personal behavior in relation to moral norms. Nonetheless, moral judgments are not enough to promote moral behavior (Carlo, Mestre, Samper, Tur, & Armenta, 2010; Colasante, Zuffianó, & Malti, 2015). For example, even though adolescents consider bullying immoral due to the damage it causes their peers (Pouwels et al., 2017; Thornberg, 2010), this acknowledgement does ensure moral behavior (Bandura, 1999; Gibbs, 2014). However, researchers have found that additional moral emotions such as empathy (Hair, 2003; Paciello, Fida, Cerniglia, Tramontano, & Cole, 2013) and shame (Eisenberg, 2000; Gilligan, 2001; Harris, 2003) are often required to prevent an immoral behavior (Eisenberg, 2000; Malti & Ongley, 2014).
Empathy. This emotional response is derived from recognizing and sharing an emotional state and perspective of others (Eisenberg, Eggum, & Giunta, 2010; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006). It has both cognitive and affective dimensions (Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987; Yeo, Ang, Loh, Fu, & Karre, 2011). In the context of bullying, empathy has been connected to a greater involvement in the defending role (Barchia & Bussey, 2011; Pöyhönen & Salmivalli, 2008; Thornberg, Pozzoli, & Jungert, 2015).
Shame. This emotion is manifested when individuals gain awareness about the negative perceptions from others with respect to their own misbehavior (Harris, 2001). Therefore, the effects of shame depend on how individuals manage their own emotions to others' judgements. A number of studies have linked this emotion to moral behavior (Eisenberg, 2000; Gilligan, 2001; Harris, 2003; Spruit, Schalkwijk, van Vugt, & Stams, 2016; Velotti, Elison, & Garofalo, 2014).
Restorative theory posits that the alignment between shame and pro-social behavior depends on how individuals respond to this emotion (Braithwaite, 1989; Harris, 2001). Moreover, a restorative management of shame implies recognizing that aggressive behavior is flawed, but also implies repairing the harm inflicted on the victim (Pontzer, 2010; Ttofi & Farrington, 2008). This condition explains why restorative strategies are increasingly associated with the adoption of pro-social behaviors in adolescents (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2006; Menesini & Camodeca, 2008; Morrison, 2006; Olthof, 2012; Valdés-Cuervo & Carlos-Martínez, 2017).
Despite previous analyses of family relationship effects on moral emotion development and taking a defender role in bullying (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2006; Arsenio & Ramos-Marcuse, 2014; Carlo, McGinley, Hayes, Batenhorst, & Wilkinson, 2007; Patrick & Gibbs, 2012; Yoo, Feng, & Day, 2013), these previous studies were limited by four broad reasons. First, they focused on a reduced set of family-related variables (e.g., Li et al., 2015; Nickerson et al., 2008; Pozzoli & Gini, 2013), which did not include parental inductive discipline. Second, they have focused on the direct associations between family-related variables and the defender role, which may obscure more indirect associations between family-related variables and the defender role. Third, despite the large evidence suggesting males and females differ in perceptions of parental discipline (Gryczkowski, Jordan, & Mercer, 2010; Raufelder, Hoferichter, Ringeisen, Regner, & Jacke, 2015), current literature has failed to explore the effects of gender in the association between family and the defender role. And fourth, no research known to the authors has been conducted in Mexico that explores the effects of parenting on the defender role in any way. Moreover, most past studies have not been grounded in any social or educational theory, which prevents much explanation of research findings within a theoretical framework.
Unlike previous research, the present study is grounded in the parent-drive model of socialization and the theory of Restorative Justice (Braithwaite, 2002). The purpose was to explore the direct and indirect relations between restorative discipline, family climate, parental support, empathy, shame, and the defender role in Mexican adolescents (see Fig. 1). Moreover, the role of gender in these relations is also examined. Finally, an alternative model was used to explore the directional effects of moral emotions and defender role on discipline in restorative practices. These decisions were inspired by the inconsistencies reported by previous scholars who suggested mono and bi-directional effects within family socialization processes. Specifically, some studies supported a bi-directional model (Belsky, 1984; Pastorelli et al., 2016; Taraban & Shaw, 2018), whereas others (Dekovié, Reitz, Asscher, & Prinzie, 2008; Heinonen, Raikkonen, Keskivaara, & Keltikangas-Jarviven, 2002) reported only a parent-to-adolescent effect. The authors believe there is a positive association between restorative parental discipline, family environment, parental support, and the defender role. Moreover, these variables were anticipated to be related to the role of defender through empathy and restorative management of shame. Finally, gender was expected to have an effect on the relationships proposed in the model.
Section snippets
Participants
We randomly selected 64 public secondary schools in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In total, 1224 adolescents were randomly selected (p = .5, q = 95%), 54.1% were female, and 45.9% male. Research participants were aged between 11 and 15 years old (M = 13.5, SD = 1.02). At the time of the study, 41.6% of the participants attended the seventh grade of secondary education, 29.9% eighth grade, and the remaining 28.5% were in ninth grade. All participant students attended public education
Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations between the study variables. The results show a significant positive correlation between restorative discipline, family climate, parental support, empathy, restorative management of shame and defender role. The differences in these variables according to gender were also tested (Student's t and Cohen's d). Females scored higher than males on all variables analyzed (see Table 1). The effects sizes are small however, except for
Discussion
In this study, the effects of positive parenting that may lead Mexican adolescents to adopt a prosocial behavior (defender role) in bullying were explored. Most previous research has focused on the effects of parental socialization and the association between parental traits, adolescents' personal characteristics, and adolescents' undesirable behaviors (e.g., bullying, academic failure). However, studies exploring the effects of positive parenting promoting defender roles are scarce. As a
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