The bully-victim overlap and nutrition among school-aged youth in North America and Europe
Introduction
Adolescent bullying is a form of peer-to-peer aggression that often occurs in the school setting and is predicated on an imbalance of power between the perpetrator and the victim (Olweus, 2013). Although bullying has been widely studied (Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, & Runions, 2014), the significance of bullying behavior and its consequences has dramatically risen in the past decade due to the wide range of deleterious health, mental health, behavioral, and psychosocial problems experienced by bully victims (Feder, 2007; Ng & Tsang, 2008; Östberg, Modin, & Låftman, 2018; Reijntjes et al., 2011; Van Geel, Vedder, & Tanilon, 2014). Additionally, research has indicated that school bullying is a predictor of multiple forms of aggression and/or violence later in life (Ttofi, Farrington, & Lösel, 2012), particularly for males (Renda, Vassallo, & Edwards, 2011). Despite the body of evidence highlighting the various risks incurred for both perpetrators and victims as a result of bullying, the etiology of bullying itself remains somewhat elusive.
One set of factors that might underpin bullying behaviors that are generally left unexplored are nutritional factors. A long-standing body of research points to the role of malnutrition and poor diet quality in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior more generally (Jackson, 2016; Jackson & Vaughn, 2017; Liu, Raine, Venables, & Mednick, 2004; Raine, Mellingen, Liu, Venables, & Mednick, 2003). The hypothesized theoretical mechanism linking poor nutrition to these forms of behavior is via the impact it may exert on frontal systems of executive governance that result in the (in)ability to regulate cognitive or emotional impulses (Nyaradi et al., 2014; Wills, Isasi, Mendoza, & Ainette, 2007). From a developmental standpoint, these systems may be particularly sensitive to nutrient deprivation stemming from poor diet quality. If prior research and theory reveal a connection between poor nutrition and aggressive and antisocial behavior, then a major constituent component of aggression, namely bullying behavior, should also be tied to dietary patterns. Consistent with this line of theorizing, multiple studies have found a positive relationship between poor impulse control and bully perpetration (Coolidge, DenBoer, & Segal, 2004; Moon & Alarid, 2015).
The present study takes advantage of a unique data source, the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC), 2009/2010 and carefully examines multiple nutritional factors and the bully-victim nexus in a large and internationally diverse sample. Given prior research that links nutritional factors to aggressive and antisocial behaviors (Jackson, 2016; Jackson & Vaughn, 2017; Liu et al., 2004; Oddy et al., 2009; Raine et al., 2003), we propose that dietary patterns might also be associated with bully perpetration and/or bully victimization among school-aged youth. We hypothesize that bully perpetration will not only be associated with these forms of poor diet quality but that a severity-based gradient (the poorer the diet, the greater the bullying) will exist. Conversely, we suggest that bully victimization in the absence of bully perpetration will not be associated with poor diet quality. Examining dietary factors and their associations with bullying is worthwhile, as strategies designed to improve diet quality among youth may have the added benefit of reducing the likelihood of bullying and its negative sequelae.
Section snippets
The underpinnings of bullying: findings from the literature
As previously noted, the harmful effects of repeated bully victimization are well-documented (Feder, 2007; Ng & Tsang, 2008; Östberg et al., 2018; Reijntjes et al., 2011; Van Geel et al., 2014). In light of the numerous negative consequences of bullying for victims, continued investigation into the underpinnings of bullying remains a top priority for both violence and health scholars. The bulk of the literature to date on the risk factors for bullying point to various individual (e.g., low
Aggressive and violent behaviors: the role of nutrition
A growing number of studies have indicated that nutritional factors are predictive of various externalizing, aggressive, and violent behaviors, many of which have features in common with bullying (e.g., see Gesch, 2013; Jackson, 2016; Jackson & Vaughn, 2017; Liu et al., 2004; Oddy et al., 2009; Raine et al., 2003). For instance, a recent study of a large sample of kindergarten-aged twins in the U.S. indicated that, even after accounting for shared genetic and environmental factors, twins who
Considering the nexus between nutrition and bullying: An extension of the literature
Despite the body of evidence underscoring the relevance of nutrition in aggressive and antisocial behaviors, the literature examining the precise underpinnings of bullying has generally focused on phenomena pertaining to environmental socialization and individuals traits, only rarely considering the role of nutrition (however see Holubcikova, Kolarcik, Geckova, Reijneveld, & van Dijk, 2015; Zahedi et al., 2014). Although some scholars have linked bully perpetration to certain health conditions
Sample
Data for the current study come from the HBSC Survey, 2009/2010. The HBSC 2009/2010 survey is a World Health Organization (WHO) collaborative, cross-national survey conducted by the HBSC research network, which includes 40 countries/regions across Europe and North America. The survey was designed to elucidate the health of youths in their broader social context, and the associations between social behaviors and health behaviors among adolescents. The international standard questionnaire was
Results
Descriptive statistics are displayed in Table 1. Ten percent (10%) of youths in the sample were designated as bullies. Among the youths who were bullies, 30% were bully-victims and 70% were bullies only. Eleven percent (11%) of youths in the sample were designated as victims. Among the youths who were victims, 27% were bully-victims and 73% were victims only. In terms of the dimensions of nutritional risk, 16% of youths were designated as eating health foods infrequently, 19% were designated as
Discussion
Bullying continues to be of great concern to scholars, practitioners, and the public (Feder, 2007; Srabstein & Piazza, 2008). Despite existing concerns, the underpinnings of bullying are complex and multifaceted and therefore would benefit from additional investigation (see Álvarez-García et al., 2015). The current study aimed to explore the potential link between dietary patterns and bullying in an international sample of youth. The analyses yielded three key findings. First, the results
Declarations of interest
None.
References (53)
- et al.
Predictors of school bullying perpetration in adolescence: A systematic review
Aggression and Violent Behavior
(2015) - et al.
Joint development of bullying and victimization in adolescence: Relations to delinquency and self-harm
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
(2008) - et al.
School, neighborhood, and family factors are associated with children's bullying involvement: A nationally representative longitudinal study
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
(2009) - et al.
Association between self-control and school bullying behaviors among Macanese adolescents
Child Abuse & Neglect
(2013) - et al.
Personality and neuropsychological correlates of bullying behavior
Personality and Individual Differences
(2004) Consumptive behavior, eating behavior, and antisocial behavior: The ubiquitous roles of self-control
Preventive Medicine
(2017)The link between poor quality nutrition and childhood antisocial behavior: A genetically informative analysis
Journal of Criminal Justice
(2016)- et al.
The influence of neuropsychological deficits in early childhood on low self-control and misconduct through early adolescence
Journal of Criminal Justice
(2013) - et al.
Considering the role of food insecurity in low self-control and early delinquency
Journal of Criminal Justice
(2018) - et al.
Household food insecurity during childhood and adolescent misconduct
Preventive Medicine
(2017)
Poor nutrition and bullying behaviors: A comparison of deviant and non-deviant youth
Journal of Adolescence
Bullying victimization among school-aged immigrant youth in the United States
Journal of Adolescent Health
Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying
Journal of Adolescent Health
The association between dietary patterns and mental health in early adolescence
Preventive Medicine
Adolescent bullying involvement and perceived family, peer and school relations: Commonalities and differences across race/ethnicity
Journal of Adolescent Health
School bullying as a predictor of violence later in life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies
Aggression and Violent Behavior
Self-control constructs related to measures of dietary intake and physical activity in adolescents
Journal of Adolescent Health
Association between junk food consumption and mental health in a national sample of Iranian children and adolescents: The CASPIAN-IV study
Nutrition
Bullying at school as a predictor of delinquency, violence and other anti-social behaviour in adulthood
Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health
A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries
International Journal of Public Health
Social Determinants of Health and Well-Being among Young People. Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the 2009/10 Survey
Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence
Journal of Counseling & Development
Delinquency prevention using family-based interventions
Children & Society
Bullying as a public health issue
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
Early malnutrition predicts parent reports of externalizing behaviors at ages 9–17
Nutritional Neuroscience
Adolescence: Does good nutrition= good behaviour?
Nutrition and Health
Cited by (6)
Association Between Dietary Patterns and Bullying Among Adolescents in Sao Paulo—Brazil
2024, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative CriminologyFood Insecurity and Bullying Victimization Among 170,618 Adolescents in 59 Countries
2021, Frontiers in PsychiatryCriminology explains school bullying
2020, Criminology Explains School BullyingMoral Disengagement of Pure Bullies and Bully/Victims: Shared and Distinct Mechanisms
2019, Journal of Youth and AdolescenceBreakfast Skipping, Psychological Distress, and Involvement in Bullying: Is There a Connection?
2019, International Journal of Bullying Prevention