Really troubled girls: Gender differences in risky sexual behavior and its correlates in a sample of juvenile offenders

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.08.010Get rights and content

Abstract

Despite numerous studies on the myriad of psychosocial factors that affect youthful offenders, research on gender differences with respect to risky sexual behavior are limited. Using data on juvenile offenders in a residential facility, we analyzed impact of gender on sexual behavior (N = 227). Girls reported higher likelihood of diagnosis with sexually transmitted diseases, and injecting drug use including heroin and cocaine than boys. Multivariate analysis indicated that number of sexual partners, childhood trauma, and services received from emergency shelter and psychiatric settings were associated with risky sexual behavior. Discouraging, abusive and dysfunctional home environment with little support from parents/caregivers, or teachers, priests/religious leaders appear to dispose youth to a life of risky sex, drugs and delinquency.

Highlights

► We studied juvenile offenders in a residential facility. ► We explored gender based differences in key psychosocial and behavioral characteristics in this sample. ► Existing systems are not focused on gender differences because very little is known about offending girls and their needs. ► Girls have greater vulnerabilities and would most likely benefit from tailored interventions to address specific needs.

Introduction

Relative to males, girls in the juvenile system are an understudied population (Patino, 2009, Postlethwait et al., 2010). Despite the myriad risks female juvenile offenders face, relatively little research attention has been focused on risky sexual behavior, especially when linked with responding to challenging situations such as delinquency, gang involvement, and neglect. This is important to study given the substantial increases in the number of girls who are caught up in the juvenile justice system especially within the last decade (Chesney-Lind, 2010). Delinquent youth engaging in risky sexual behavior such as unprotected sexual intercourse with multiple partners of unknown status as well as sexual intercourse under the influence of drug/alcohol threatens both those within and outside the juvenile justice system (Romero et al., 2007).

Previous studies have found sexual risk behavior, especially those pertaining to HIV/AIDS and STDs is higher among detained youth when compared to the general population (Teplin, Mericle, McClelland, & Abram, 2003). Estimates suggest that girls now account for almost 30% of nationwide juvenile arrests in the United States (Chesney-Lind, 2010) including an increased presence of girls in the juvenile detention system (Pasko & Chesney-Lind, 2010). While the overall juvenile incarceration rate has decreased nationwide in the last ten years, the rate of decrease among girls has been slower compared to boys (8% versus 18%) (Patino, 2009). Several factors are associated with the increased presence of girls in the juvenile justice system such as unmet mental health needs (Patino, 2009), lower school achievement and family dynamics (Zahn, Hawkins, Chiancone, & Whitworth, 2008), and different definitions of what constitutes assault (Chesney-Lind, 2006).

In addition to mental health challenges, both boys and girls in juvenile justice settings also report substantial substance use and abuse histories (Morris et al., 1995, Vaughn et al., 2007). While some evidence pertaining to substance use among adolescents in the juvenile justice system relates to negative coping behavior (Robertson, Xu, & Stripling, 2010), others find influence of gang membership (Harper, Davidson, & Hosek, 2008), social bonding and peer culture (Ramaswamy & Freudenberg, 2010), as well as trauma exposure and post traumatic stress (Dixon, Howie, & Starling, 2005). Irrespective of the underlying reasons, substance use and abuse such as injecting drug use, has been intrinsically linked with health risks including HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases in this population (Borek et al., 2010, Merkinaite et al., 2010).

Research has shown that adolescents in the juvenile justice system increasingly present with a history of physical, emotional and sexual abuse resulting in unmet mental health needs and negative coping behavior (Chesney-Lind, 2010, Goodkind et al., 2009, Lippman, 2010, Pasko and Chesney-Lind, 2010). The empirical evidence suggests there are gender differences. For example, a study assessed post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology among juvenile offenders and found rates of PTSD among female delinquents in incarceration were higher compared to PTSD incidences among male delinquents in incarceration (Cauffman, Feldman, Watherman, & Steiner, 1998). While experiential childhood trauma was found to be associated with higher likelihood of risky health behavior among female juvenile offenders, the same relationship was not supported by diagnostic assessment of PTSD (Smith, Leve, & Chamberlain, 2006).

Among the dearth of studies on sexual risk among female juvenile offenders, only one study explored relational pathways of sexual risk behavior specifically among female juvenile offenders and reported mixed findings (Lopez et al., 2010). While a direct effect was found between increased levels of child maltreatment and non-condom use among female juvenile detainees, study results found no support for a relationship between depressive self concept, a measure of depression and self esteem, and non-condom use.

Risky sexual behavior has been linked with the population of juvenile offenders, mainly in males (Brooks et al., 2011, Khurana et al., 2011, Leslie et al., 2010). Studies of detained adolescents found that sexual risk behavior was associated with factors such as concurrent sexual partners, sporadic sexual activities, involvement of drugs and alcohol during sexual encounters, as well as unmet mental health needs (Bryan et al., 2009, Dembo et al., 2009, Kerr et al., 2009).

In addition to the few epidemiologic and survey studies of sexual risk behavior among girls randomized controlled trials testing the efficacy of sexual risk reduction interventions have also primarily targeted more boys than girls, and the limited interventions that have focused on delinquent girls have produced mixed results (Bryan et al., 2009, Robertson et al., 2011). Barriers in successful implementation of sexual risk reduction among female juvenile offenders suggest girls are a hard to reach population (Zahn, 2008). Further, existing racial and gender disparity in the juvenile justice system make female focused interventions difficult (Moore & Padavic, 2010), and extant skills and behavior specific interventions such as increased condom use (Robertson et al., 2011, Voisin and Neilands, 2010) do not necessarily target condom negotiation skills among young girls.

Even though associations among contextual factors such as history of abuse and trauma with respect to adolescent offenders have been mentioned repeatedly, research is limited on how such contextual factors affect risky sexual behaviors of female juvenile offenders. Negative affect among adolescent offenders were associated with risky sexual behavior, including lower HIV/AIDS knowledge, lower frequency of condom use as well as negative attitudes towards condom use (Lucenko, Malow, Sanchez-Martinez, Jennings, & Devieux, 2003). While evidence suggests female adult offenders with history of sexual abuse are more likely to report risky sexual behavior (McCartan & Gunnison, 2010), a gap remains in examining impact of such negative experiences on sexual behavior among young girls in the juvenile justice system.

This study sought to increase empirical knowledge on sexual behavior among delinquent girls in the juvenile justice system. Specifically, this study addresses two research questions pertaining to female juvenile offenders: 1) Do females differ significantly from male juvenile offenders with respect to their sexual risk behavior and key psychosocial characteristics?, and 2) What factors are associated with the likelihood of sexual intercourse under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol. Answers to these questions will add precision in understanding how gender differences among juvenile offenders as well as identify factors that could potentially inform intervention development for this population.

Section snippets

Participants and procedures

The data for this study (n = 227) are derived from a non-probability sample of 14–19 year old youth in two (one male only and one female only) private non-profit long-term residential placement facilities for juvenile offenders in Western Pennsylvania. Data collection at the boys' facility occurred from June 2009 through August 2009 (n = 126). Criteria for boys being enrolled in the study included being between 14 and 18 years old and having been in the facility between 3 and 12 months when

Characteristics of the study sample

Male and female participants of this study were on an average 16.48 years old (SD = 2.39). About half of them were African Americans while the others were mostly multiracial, and a few reported to be of international origin like Cambodian or Jamaican. There was no statistically significant gender differences between male and female participants based on family and neighborhood characteristics where 44% (n = 112) had lived with at least two adults, and about 50% (n = 125) of their families received

Discussion

Our main study goals were to increase knowledge about gender differences in risky sexual behavior among girls and boys in the juvenile justice system and assess the factors that predict risky sexual behavior. As such, the present study findings contribute to the understanding of the unique vulnerabilities of girls in the juvenile system. The finding that almost 60% of siblings and fathers and almost 30% of the mothers of these adolescents had ever been in jail suggests a high level of

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the four anonymous reviewers who provided thoughtful critique that helped strengthen the quality of this manuscript.

References (40)

  • D. Bernstein et al.

    Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A retrospective self-report

    (1998)
  • N. Borek et al.

    Involving vulnerable populations of youth in HIV prevention clinical research

    JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes

    (2010)
  • R.A. Brooks et al.

    HIV testing, perceived vulnerability and correlates of HIV sexual risk behaviours of Latino and African American young male gang members

    Int J STD AIDS

    (2011)
  • A.D. Bryan et al.

    HIV risk reduction among detained adolescents: A randomized, controlled trial

    Pediatrics

    (2009)
  • E. Cauffman et al.

    Bad boys or poor parents: Relations to female juvenile delinquency

    Journal of Research on Adolescence

    (2008)
  • M. Chesney-Lind

    Patriarchy, crime, and justice

    Feminist Criminology

    (2006)
  • M. Chesney-Lind

    Jailing “bad” girls

  • R. Dembo et al.

    Gender and racial differences in risk factors for sexually transmitted diseases among justice-involved youth

    Neurobehavioral HIV Medicine

    (2009)
  • S. Goodkind et al.

    Coping as a mediator of the effects of stressors and supports on depression among girls in juvenile justice

    Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice

    (2009)
  • G.W. Harper et al.

    Influence of gang membership on negative affect, substance use, and antisocial behavior among homeless African American male youth

    American Journal of Men's Health

    (2008)
  • Cited by (19)

    • Predictors of sexual and reproductive health among girls involved in the juvenile legal system: The influence of resources, race, and ethnicity

      2022, Children and Youth Services Review
      Citation Excerpt :

      These structural drivers often further correspond to high rates of coercive sex (Lee et al. 2017), dating older partners (Finigan-Carr et al. 2018), and trading money for sex (Footer et al. 2020). As a result, SRH risk compounds for system-involved girls of color, who carry the highest burden of outcomes associated with risky sex such as STI/HIV contraction and unintended pregnancy (UIP), despite engaging in fewer sexual risk behaviors compared to system-involved White girls and boys (Barnert et al., 2016; Biswas & Vaughn, 2011; Crosby et al., 2004; Tam et al., 2019; Voisin, Hong, & King, 2012; Logan-Greene et al., 2021). Cross-sectionally, studies find that anywhere between 20 and 50% of detained Black and Latinx girls contract STIs (Crosby et al. 2004; Fasula et al. 2018; Johnston et al. 2015).

    • Differences between boys and girls in perceived group climate in residential youth care

      2021, Children and Youth Services Review
      Citation Excerpt :

      Recent studies have emphasized the need for gender responsive treatment of youth in residential care based on differences in psychological development of boys and girls as well as differences in exposure to risk factors, pathways to crime, and needs (Anderson, Hoskins, & Rubino, 2019; Granski et al., 2020; Hubbard & Matthews, 2008; Lanctôt, 2018; Piller, Gibly, & Peled 2019; Walker, Bishop, Nurius, & Logan-Greene, 2016). For example, boys tend to display more aggressive and delinquent behavior than girls, whereas girls display more internalizing behavior and are more at risk for exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), such as parental neglect, domestic violence, and sexual abuse (Asscher, Van der Put, & Stams, 2015; Assink et al., 2019; Biswas & Vaughn, 2011; Chaplo, Kerig, Modrowski, & Bennett, 2017; Dirkse, Eichelsheim, Asscher, & Van der Laan, 2018; Leve, Chamberlain, & Kim, 2015; Van Damme, Colins, De Maeyer, Vermeiren, & Vanderplasschen, 2015). Studies have found that girls are more at risk to develop trauma-related symptoms compared to boys, and that experienced trauma is likely to be one of the principal mechanisms underlying aggressive behavior in girls (Ford, Chapman, Connor, & Cruise, 2012; Ford, Grasso, Hawke, & Chapman, 2013; Kerig & Becker, 2012; Leenarts et al., 2013; Olff, 2017).

    • Treating Youths in the Juvenile Justice System

      2017, Pediatric Clinics of North America
      Citation Excerpt :

      Rates of STIs (20%–42%) discovered during health evaluations in JJ facilities, are much higher than those in community samples.31,34 Compared with JJ-involved boys, JJ girls are reported to have higher rates of STDs.35–37 They are also more likely to engage in other risky sexual practices, including unprotected sex, sex with high-risk partners, and trading sex for money.38

    • An investigation of gender differences in a representative sample of juveniles detained in Connecticut

      2015, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
      Citation Excerpt :

      The field has summarized answers to these questions in a series of bulletins produced by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention's Girls Study Group (http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/publications/index.html) and a number of literature reviews (e.g., Pajer, 1998; Zahn, 2009). Research indicates that adolescent girls who have committed serious crimes have a high likelihood of risky developmental trajectories (Lenssen, Doreleijers, Van Dijk, & Hartman, 2000; Odgers, Robins, & Russell, 2010), characterized retrospectively, by causal factors that are endogenous, such as early maturation (Celio, Karnik, & Steiner, 2006) and exogenous, such as higher levels of family adversity (Biswas & Vaughn, 2011); multiple negative life events such as physical abuse and sexual abuse (Dembo, Schmeidler, & Childs, 2007); and much life stress and turmoil (Broidy & Agnew, 1997). Prospectively, their developmental trajectories are characterized by elevated rates of physical and mental health problems, substance abuse, low educational and vocational achievement, and persistent delinquency (MacDonald, 2013; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001; Tripodi & Pettus-Davis, 2013).

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text