Maternal work schedules and child outcomes: Evidence from the National Survey of American Families
Introduction
Recent studies examining an important dimension of maternal employment–mothers' work schedules–have found that mothers working nonstandard hours (e.g., evening, night, or rotating hours) may have some adverse influences on their young children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes (e.g., Han, 2005, Heymann, 2000). This fact, together with the findings from recent welfare studies that (1) mothers who have left the welfare system are likely to find jobs that require irregular schedules (Loprest, 1999, Schumacher and Greenberg, 1999) and that (2) contemporary maternal employment may have some adverse effects on adolescent outcomes (Gennetian et al., 2002) raises concerns about the extent to which different dimensions of maternal employment may affect children's outcomes, particularly for adolescents. Maternal work schedules also have tremendous implications for child care arrangements. Studies have shown that mothers working nonstandard hours are more likely to use familial-type of care (e.g., father, relative, or non-relative home-based care) (Presser, 1986, Presser, 1988). The reasons for choosing such care arrangements may have to do with the resources available to them, or they may feel that father or relative care is best for the child. The fact that these mothers may need to find care that is appropriate for night hours (e.g., to provide a safe sleeping environment), which may also affect their choices for daytime care, highlights the complexities of child care for these children. Thus, an understanding of the relationship between maternal nonstandard work hours and children's outcomes is particularly important for creating informed child and family policies that address the challenges faced by mothers working at different hours, including a re-examination of current welfare programs that require mothers to work without consideration of the type of schedule. However, we still know very little about the relationship between maternal nonstandard work schedules and child development.
This paper intends to serve as the first step towards exploring (1) the associations between contemporary maternal nonstandard work hours and children's outcomes at ages 6–17, and (2) the contextual factors that may moderate the associations. The most recent nationally representative samples—the 1997 and 1999 waves of the National Survey of American Families were used. The use of a cross-sectional, nationally representative sample will provide useful insights; however, it will not allow for conclusions about the long-term effects of maternal nonstandard work schedules on children's outcomes.
Section snippets
Previous studies
Numerous empirical studies have found negative effects of working nonstandard hours on adults' psychological, physical, and sociological well-being (e.g., Gold et al., 1992, Gordon et al., 1986, Presser, 2000). Such adverse impacts on individual well-being raise concerns about the potential impact–direct or indirect–of mothers' nonstandard work schedules on their children's well-being. However, there is very little theory or research available to show the existence or direction of any such
The NSAF sample
The data come from the 1997 and 1999 waves of the NSAF, a dataset collected by the Urban Institute and Child Trends. The NSAF is a nationally representative sample of the civilian non-institutionalized population under age 65 that covers topics including child well-being, child care, child support, health care and insurance coverage, employment and training, and welfare reform. It also contains an over-sample of families with incomes below 200% of the poverty line.
During 1997 and 1999,
A descriptive look
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics by survey year ((a) for 1997 and (b) for 1999) and by maternal work schedules (standard vs. nonstandard hours) for analyzed variables for the total sample. For both survey years, about three-quarters of the mothers were non-Hispanic white and three-quarters were married. The average age was about 36 years old for mothers and 39 for fathers. Less than 10% of both mothers and fathers had an education below a high school degree. Approximately 70% of the
Discussion and conclusion
In a time with increasing numbers of mothers entering the workforce and increasing numbers of them working nonstandard hours, we still know far too little about the impacts these trends have on children and families. The similarity in the demographic profiles of people working at nonstandard hours and people receiving welfare, together with recent findings that welfare recipients are more likely to work at jobs that require nonstandard schedules (Loprest, 1999, Schumacher and Greenberg, 1999),
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Katherine Magnuson and Jane Waldfogel for their valuable comments, and Rocky Citro for wonderful editorial assistance. The author gratefully acknowledges support from the NSAF Small Research Grant Program of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management and The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
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