Shorter communicationImplicit theories of intelligence and IQ test performance in adolescents with Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Introduction
During the past decade, several studies have assessed the psychological treatment of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Some authors (Bögels & Siqueland, 2006; Compton et al., 2004; Kazdin, Marciano, & Whitley, 2005; Kendall, Brady, & Verduin, 2001; Kuehn, 2007) have reported positive effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in the treatment of disordered children and adolescents with for example depression (Bögels & Siqueland, 2006; Compton et al., 2004), anxiety (Kendall et al., 2001), and conduct disorders (Kazdin et al., 2005). The CBT program includes components of traditional treatments including training in relaxation techniques, desensitization techniques, teaching coping skills, promoting self-control, enhancing self-efficacy, reinforcement strategies, and strategies for the parents to assist their child. One of the most effective CBT interventions for children and adolescents is also to teach children how to challenge negative thoughts underlying maladjusted behaviors.
Over the past 20 years, Dweck (1986) and colleagues (Dweck & Leggettt, 1988) have specifically proposed a social-cognitive model of achievement and motivation that has gathered considerable empirical support in studies of typically developing children. More precisely, in academic situations children's behavior can be explained by several beliefs. This line of research (Dweck (1986), Dweck (1999)) indicates that the way in which a student thinks about intelligence can have a powerful effect on his or her level of achievement. In others words, children's implicit theories about intelligence contribute to how well they do in school (Da Fonseca, Cury, Bailly, & Rufo, 2004). Implicit theories of intelligence refer to the individuals’ beliefs about the nature of intelligence. Entity theorists believe that this ability is stable and not particularly amenable to change, whereas incremental theorists believe that it is malleable and highly amenable to change (e.g., Dweck (1986), Dweck (1999); Dweck & Leggettt, 1988; Dweck & Molden, 2005; Elliot & Church, 1997; Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin, & Wan, 1999).
Several studies (Cury, Elliot, Da Fonseca, & Moller, 2006; Dweck & Sorich, 1999; Henderson & Dweck, 1990; Stipek & Gralinski, 1996) have revealed that incremental theory is positively related to exam performance, whereas entity theory is negatively related to exam performance. When schoolwork becomes more challenging and the grading criteria become more stringent, entity theorists tend to show substantial performance decrements. In contrast, incremental theorists tend to perform well and show a marked improvement in their standing relative to their peers. Moreover, numerous correlational studies have shown that when tasks become challenging, incremental theorists appear to experience less anxiety (e.g., Hong, Dweck, & Chiu, 1999). In an experimental study, Aronson et al. (1999) demonstrated the effects of manipulating a fixed-versus-expandable view of ability on anxiety and performance. American students took a challenging verbal test. Prior to the test, some participants were informed that the ability being tested was highly malleable, whereas others were told that this ability was fixed. The students reported more anxiety and solved fewer items in the “fixed ability” condition, while they reported less anxiety and solved more items in the “malleable ability” condition.
More recently, Cury et al. (2006) also used implicit theory manipulation in an experimental design with 96 normally developing adolescents. The purpose of this experiment was in part to validate the direct relationship between implicit theory and performance achievement in the context of an IQ assessment. Incremental theory, relative to entity theory, was expected to have a positive effect on IQ test performance (The Coding test of the WISC III, Wechsler, 1996). After completing the Coding test, participants were confronted to experimental manipulations coming from writing forms. Finally, they were asked to perform the Coding test a second time. The results of this study supported that IQ test performance, controlled for baseline level, was predicted by the implicit theory manipulation. Relative to entity theory, incremental theory leaded to better performance in normally developing adolescents. This study revealed interesting findings. First, the experimental manipulation was found to influence achievement outcomes of substantial real-world significance, and second it revealed a positive relationship between the belief of the malleability of the intelligence and one of the tests used to evaluate this intelligence.
Surprisingly, very few studies have used this framework in adolescents with mental disorders1; and to date, no study has examined the role played by implicit theories of intelligence on performance of adolescents with mental disorders.
The main purpose of this study was to replicate and to extend this line of research by testing this implicit theory effect on performance of adolescents with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). GAD is one of the most prevalent psychopathological problems in this age group. Furthermore, the worries of children and adolescents with GAD are mostly related to school performance, and are characterized by continuous self-doubt, high sensitivity to criticism and apprehensive expectation (Hishinuma et al., 2001; Masi et al., 2004). Children with GAD also report negative feelings of social acceptability, personal competence, and expectations about the future, which generate difficulties in learning. Studies have also consistently demonstrated the negative impact of childhood and adolescent anxiety on academic performance. Indeed, children and adolescents with anxiety disorders are at increased risk for underachieving in school and for leaving school prematurely (e.g., Andrews & Wilding, 2004; Van Ameringen, Mancini, & Farvolden, 2003). Thus, anxiety disorders often interfere significantly with children and adolescents’ adaptive functioning, particularly in academic settings, so that a treatment specifically addressing these issues might prove beneficial.
In order to test if the implicit theory effect could be used to enhance the performance and reduce anxiety in adolescents with GAD, we used Cury et al.'s (2006) procedure based on the theory developed by Dweck et al. (e.g., Dweck (1986), Dweck (1999); Dweck & Leggettt, 1988; Hong, Chiu et al., 1999; Hong, Dweck et al., 1999). We predicted that, relative to a control condition, the manipulation of incremental theory would have a positive influence on IQ test performance and negative effects on state anxiety.
Section snippets
Participants and design
Twenty-eight individuals (14 males and 14 females), aged 11–16 years (M=14.52; S.D.=4.60) diagnosed with GAD based on DSM-IV (APA, 1994) diagnostic criteria, volunteered to participate in the experiment. The assessment comprised a semi-structured clinical diagnostic interview (Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children—Present and Lifetime Version; K-SADS-PL) conducted separately with parents and children by a team of specialists. The K-SADS-PL has extensively
Preliminary analyses
Independent sample t-tests revealed no significant differences between the incremental and control groups at baseline testing (T1 performance (t(26)=.63, p=.53) and T1 anxiety (t(26)=−.35, p=.72). However, as expected, there were significant group differences both in T2 performance (t(26)=−2.13, p=.029) and in T2 anxiety (t(26)=2.87, p=.007).
Relations between variables were examined with Pearson correlations between variables. T1 performance was related positively to T2 performance (r=.76, p
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to test whether an incremental theory manipulation could be used to affect IQ test performance of adolescents with GAD. The results confirmed our initial hypothesis. Induction of an incremental theory of intelligence led to better IQ performance in adolescents with GAD. Moreover, this incremental theory manipulation decreased state anxiety. These results are in agreement with Cury et al.'s (2006) study, demonstrating that IQ test performance was partially
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