Predictive models for understanding body dissatisfaction among young males and females in China
Introduction
A wide-ranging review of research literature suggests that dissatisfaction with body size and shape is a common concern for adolescents and young adults. Approximately, 60% of females and 30% of males report a desire to change their body size or shape (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001) and nearly 25% of adolescent females report clinically significant levels of body dissatisfaction (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Body dissatisfaction is associated with emotional distress, low sense of self-value and eating disorders (Chen et al., 2006; Hoffman & Brownell, 1997; Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Many factors have been implicated in the onset and maintenance of body image problems, including biological factors (e.g., body mass index), psychological factors (e.g., perfectionism, negative affect, low self-esteem) and sociocultural factors (e.g., family, peer, romantic partner and media) (Littleton & Ollenclick, 2003). Moreover, predictive models for the onset and maintenance of body image disturbance or eating problems have been developed and tested during the last decade, emphasizing the influence of sociocultural factors (Keery, van den Berg, & Thompson, 2004; Muris, Meesters, Blom, & Mayer, 2005; Ricciardelli, McCabe, Holt, & Finemore, 2003; Stice, 2001).
In an attempt to incorporate many of the variables hypothesized to have an effect on body dissatisfaction and eating disturbances, Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, and Tantleff-Dunn (1999) developed the Tripartite Influence Model. With respect to body dissatisfaction, an attempt was made to use a measure that captured specific facets of dissatisfaction with body size and weight (specific body sites such as the waist, thighs, and hips), along with a measure that assessed more global appearance evaluations (Keery et al., 2004). Eating disturbance was measured on the basis of drive for thinness (restricting tendencies, desire to lose weight, fear of weight gain) and bulimia symptoms (the tendency toward overeating, binging, and the impulse to engage in self-induced vomiting). The model is composed of three primary sources of sociocultural influence (peers, parents and media) that are hypothesized to exert their effects on body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance directly and indirectly through two primarily mediational mechanisms—appearance social comparison and thin-ideal internalization. Also body dissatisfaction is hypothesized to have a direct effect on restrictive eating, which may predict bulimic behaviors. This model has been tested to have good fit in adolescent girls and college women (Keery et al., 2004; Shroff & Thompson, 2006; Thompson et al., 1999; van den Berg, Thompson, Obremski-Brandon, & Coovert, 2002), and has recently been used as a framework for understanding factors that might influence boys’ body image concerns and steroid use (Smolak, Murnen, & Thompson, 2005).
Based on the Tripartite Influence Model (Keery, Berg, & Thompson, 2004), the current study aimed to develop a sociocultural model for predicting onset of body dissatisfaction in China. A brief review of the relevant variables is considered below.
One of the main determinants of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and other aspects of problem eating among adolescents is BMI (Stice, 2002). Researchers have shown that both boys and girls who have a larger BMI reported a desire to be thinner (e.g., Candy & Fee, 1998; Chen et al., 2006; Ricciardelli et al., 2003). Increased BMI is associated with related constructs, such as body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, lower self-worth, concerns about being or becoming overweight, and dieting (Oliver & Thelen, 1996; Vander Wal & Thelen, 2000). However, few studies have considered the relationship between BMI and sociocultural variables when constructing predictive models of body dissatisfaction.
With regard to the effect of the sociocultural variables, perception of teasing from others has been found to predict body dissatisfaction, body image disturbance and eating problems (Keery et al., 2004; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). Although teasing can be benign, it typically constitutes a very negative experience for adolescents and young adults, and appearance is the most likely target (Wander Wal & Thelen, 2000). Longitudinal studies (Cattarin & Thompson, 1994; Thompson, Cattarin, Fowler, & Fisher, 1995; Thompson, Coovert, Richards, Johnson, & Cattarin, 1995) have shown that both perception of teasing frequency and impact are associated with the development of body dissatisfaction among middle-school girls. Hence, perception of teasing from others is likely associated with body dissatisfaction in adolescents as well as young adults for both males and females. Moreover, because heavier adolescents may be more likely to receive appearance-related teasing (Cattarin & Thompson, 1994; Thompson, Cattarin et al., 1995;Thompson, Coovert et al., 1995), teasing may serve as a mediator or moderator between BMI and body dissatisfaction. Furthermore, there has been little research on the relationship between perception of teasing and body dissatisfaction among males.
Numerous researchers have proposed that sociocultural pressures to be thin promote body dissatisfaction, negative affect and eating disturbances in young women (Stice, Maxfield, & Wells, 2003; Thompson et al., 1999). There are several sources of these sociocultural pressures to be thin, including the mass media, families, peers and romantic partners. These pressures take a variety of forms, such as glorification of ultra-slender fashion models, direct messages that one should lose weight (e.g., weight-related teasing), and more indirect pressures to conform to the current thin-ideal espoused for women (e.g., a friend's persistent obsessions about weight and appearance). The role of sociocultural pressures regarding the thin body ideal has been widely studied among females. Although there have been some studies that examined the influence of sociocultural factors on males’ desire for muscularity (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004), little research has been conducted on males’ weight loss concerns.
The general process of social comparison, first defined by Festinger (1954), is an innate process by which individuals collect information regarding an attribute. Social comparison theory was first brought into the area of body image by Cash, Cash, and Butters (1983). In both experimental and correlational studies, higher level of physical appearance comparison was found to significantly result in or correlate with higher level of body dissatisfaction (Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas, & Williams, 2000). Some studies have found that appearance comparison serves as a mediator between sociocultural influence and body weight concerns and eating problems for females (Vander Wal & Thelen, 2000), and also mediate the relationship between sociocultural influence and muscle gain for males (Gokee-LaRose, Dunn, & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). However, little research has study the effect of appearance comparison for males on weight loss concerns.
Several studies support the importance of the thin ideal in both the development of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance (Low et al., 2003; Thompson & Stice, 2001). In several intervention studies with college women, decreases in the internalization of the thin ideal have been associated with positive outcome (Stice, Spangler, & Agras, 2001). Moreover, thin-ideal internalization has been suggested as a source through which social culture exert its effect on body image concerns (Keery et al., 2004; Wertheim, Paxton, & Blaney, 2004). Accumulating evidence suggests that the effects of the thin ideal may be important for understanding the etiology of the onset and maintenances of body image concerns.
Interpersonal processes have also been proposed as risk factors for body dissatisfaction. Body image concerns may be promoted by deficits in social support because a lack of support from family and friends is believed to produce negative feelings about oneself and one's physical appearance (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Feeling supported by one's immediate social environment may serve as a protective factor from the social pressures that are hypothesized to foster body dissatisfaction. Adolescents and young adults lacking a supportive network may turn to a pursuit of the ideal body type to gain social acceptance. However, contradictory evidence has been found regarding this relation. Some studies found that social support deficits did not predict increases in girls’ or boys’ body dissatisfaction (Byely, Archibald, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Presnell, Bearman, & Stice, 2004), whereas another study with a larger sample found that deficits in social support predicted increases in body dissatisfaction among girls (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). It is expected that perceived social support would moderate the effect of sociocultural influence on body dissatisfaction for both males and females.
Most of the cited research has been conducted in Western cultures or developed countries. However, such predictive models do not necessarily apply in Eastern cultures or developing countries. Also, most predictive models have focused on females. Therefore, the current study was designed to develop a model as a potential explanatory framework for understanding how sociocultural factors (perception of teasing and social pressure to be thin) contribute to the development of body dissatisfaction in China. Based on the study of Keery et al. (2004), it was hypothesized that physical appearance comparison and thin-ideal internalization would mediate the relations between perception of teasing and body dissatisfaction for both males and females. Also, BMI was expected to directly and indirectly (through perceived teasing) predict body dissatisfaction. Finally, it was also hypothesized that there would be gender difference in the models of males and females.
Section snippets
Participants
A total of 1424 students participated in this study. The researchers excluded 47 surveys because they were either (a) unreliable due to incomplete responses or (b) not finished due to participants’ ceasing during the study. A total of 1377 participants (884 females and 493 males) were included in the final statistical analyses, who aged between 12 and 22 years (M=16.68 years, SD=2.47 years). Participants were recruited from nine middle schools and six universities in Chonqing, Sichuan Province
Correlational analysis
Pearson's correlations were calculated among all measures separately for males and females (Table 1). The relationship of age to the outcome variable was assessed due to the wide age range. However, the correlation between age and outcome variable was not reach the significant level (for females, , ; for males, , ). There were many similarities between males and females, but also some notable differences (See Table 1). These correlations were used as the basic for conducting
Discussion
The present study examined the impact of BMI, perception of teasing, social pressure to be thin, appearance comparison, thin-ideal internalization and, perceived social support on body dissatisfaction among young males and females in China. One predictive model for the body dissatisfaction was developed respectively for each gender.
Consistent with the findings of foregoing studies (Lunner et al., 2000; Vander Wal & Thelen, 2000), BMI was a significant indicator of body dissatisfaction for both
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the China National Key Subject Foundation of Fundamental Psychology #04016 (SNKSF 04016) and Chongqing Key Research Program on Humanity and Social Science Grant 05JWSK192 to Hong Chen.
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