Brief research reportExamination of muscularity and body fat depictions in magazines that target heterosexual and gay men
Highlights
► Examined muscularity and body fat in heterosexual, gay and general male magazines. ► Gay magazines depicted leaner images than heterosexual and general magazines. ► Gay and heterosexual magazines have more muscular images than general magazines.
Introduction
Body image research has focused primarily on women and the deleterious effects that contribute to the development of eating disordered behavior and eating pathology (Cash, 2002, Striegel-Moore and Bulik, 2007). However, men may develop body image dissatisfaction as a result of their subjective evaluation of not conforming to cultural ideals of masculinity that emphasize muscularity and leanness (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000). Within the gay community, varying degrees of importance are placed on lean and muscular ideals (Levesque & Vichesky, 2006). The range of leanness and muscularity is often dependent upon the subgroup being identified. For example, men who identify as “bears” display a body ideal that is larger in mass, with an emphasis placed on increased muscularity, while men who identify as “twinks” embrace a thinner and leaner body ideal (Duncan, 2010, Gough and Flanders, 2009). The importance of conforming to the body type in the subculture to which an individual identifies has been theorized to contribute to a greater number of gay men reporting greater dissatisfaction with their overall body image than heterosexual men (Kaminski et al., 2005, Levesque and Vichesky, 2006, Morrison et al., 2004). However, the heterogeneity of these idealized physiques has led to recent critiques of the extent to which body ideals and expectations may influence an individual's subjective dissatisfaction (Kane, 2010). Despite various body ideals within the gay community, each of these idealized types places an increased focus on the male physique and on attaining some degree of muscularity and leanness.
Regularly reading magazines is an influential source of sociocultural information that may lead to internalizing body ideals (Pope, Olivardia, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001). Although U.S. consumer magazine sales have declined in recent years, the circulation rates of American gay publications have increased by 5.3% (Prime Access & Rivendell, 2012). Furthermore, between 1996 and 2011 U.S. advertising revenues in gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered press have grown six times faster than that of consumer magazines (Prime Access & Rivendell, 2012).
Previous content analyses have described how the male physique has been depicted in magazines. For example, Petrie, Austin, Cowley, and Helmcamp (1996), found that the fit and muscular physique portrayed in men's fashion magazines (e.g., Esquire, GQ) remained relatively consistent between 1960 and 1992. Conversely, Law and Labre (2002) reported that a shift toward models depicting leaner and more muscular physiques occurred in the 1990s. Moreover, the articles and advertisements contained in popular gay magazines were noted as placing extreme importance on having a body that is lean and muscular (Saucier & Caron, 2008). Taken on aggregate, these studies suggest that gay men are increasingly being targeted with images that demonstrate an unrealistic ideal of beauty, body size, muscularity, and body composition. Thus, gay men may be prone to body image dissatisfaction in part because of these sociocultural cues that emphasize the importance of unattainable body ideals (Levesque and Vichesky, 2006, Tiggemann et al., 2007).
Existing content analyses are limited by selecting small numbers of magazines (e.g., Petrie et al., 1996) and failing to include comparison publications intended for other populations (e.g., Saucier & Caron, 2008). Thus, the purpose of our study was to examine the visual sociocultural cues regarding men's body images depicted in highly circulated magazines. We hypothesized firstly that images in gay magazines would depict a more muscular body ideal than similar content in magazines targeting heterosexual men and general audiences (Law and Labre, 2002, Saucier and Caron, 2008). Second, we hypothesized that images in gay magazines would represent a leaner body ideal with an emphasis on lower body fat than the images presented in other magazine genres (Saucier and Caron, 2008, Tiggemann et al., 2007).
Section snippets
Method
Twenty-three magazine titles with the highest rank in each genre (i.e., male, gay, general) were selected based on their average U.S. circulation subscriptions paid and verified (including single copy sales) as ranked by the Audit Bureau of Circulations’ (ABC) six month review ending December 31, 2006 and listed on each magazine's official website (accessed January 2007) (see Table 1). Furthermore, we consulted each magazine's website for demographic data to determine the approximate gender
Results
Preliminary analyses were conducted to examine relationships between muscularity, thinness and magazine genres. See Table 2 for descriptives. We found no significant difference in the number of images in each genre of magazines, F(2, 20) = 1.55, p = .238, η2 = .13. Our first hypothesis regarding muscularity of men in magazine images was tested using a univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). We found significant differences in muscularity of male images (dependent variable) in each magazine genre
Discussion
Our results suggest that there were both similarities and differences when comparing the images of men in gay, heterosexual, and general audience magazines. Our hypotheses concerning the muscularity and body fat depictions of magazine images were partially supported. That is, male images in magazines intended for gay as well as heterosexual audiences portrayed more muscular ideals than images in general audience magazines. However, no difference was found between gay and heterosexual audience
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